(a)

Plans are being discussed to restore a much larger area of the marshes by using a greater amount of water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

[ 5 ]

(i)

With reference to all of the data in the resource booklet, evaluate the plan to re-flood the marshes completely.

The Iraq/Iran marshlands once covered about 15000 km^2.
The marshes receive only about 100 mm of rainfall each year while more than 2500 mm evaporates, leaving salty water.
Spring snowmelt formerly flowed down from Iran and Turkey, bringing sediment and washing away salty water.
The wetlands developed many endemic species and filtered pollutants; local food systems used fishing and water buffalo, and reeds were used for construction.

Figure 5: 2009 age/sex pyramid for Iraq

Figure 6: Irrigated, rainfed and total cultivated land in Iraq

From the early 1950s, dams across the Euphrates and Tigris reduced water flow to the marshes.
After the 1991 Gulf War the marshes were drained by diverting water away, causing wetland desertification and displacement of indigenous people.
By 2002, marshlands had diminished to 760 km^2.
In 2003 floodgates were opened and embankments broken; partial re-flooding occurred but not to historic levels.
High salt concentrations have prevented ecosystem restoration in some areas.

Figure 8: Reduction in marsh area between 1973 and 2000

Figure 9: Species numbers in natural and re-flooded marshes

Component	Natural marsh (Al-Hawizeh)	Re-flooded marsh (Al-Hammar)	Re-flooded marsh (Al-Sanaf)
Salinity / ppt	0.87	0.96	17.49
pH	7.64	7.95	9.40
Total nitrogen / ug L^{-1}	464	1652	2050

Figure 10: Water quality of natural and re-flooded marshes

Figure 12(a)/(b): Valuing ecosystems and willingness to pay to restore marshes

[ 5 ]

[Maximum number: 5]

Figure 2(a): Fact file and climate graph for Hokkaido/Sapporo

Figure 2(c): Elevation map of Hokkaido

Figure 3(b): Hokkaido's national parks and airports

(a)

Using Figures 2(c) and 3(b), outline one relationship between the location of Hokkaido's national parks and their elevation.

[ 1 ]

(b)

With reference to Figure 3(b), evaluate the design of Hokkaido's national parks as protected areas.

Hokkaido has six of Japan's 34 national parks and 10% of its land area is protected.
Many birds, amphibians, butterflies and mammals are endemic subspecies.
About 25% of hiking trails in Shikotsu-Toya and Daisetsuzan have been heavily degraded due to intensive use.

[ 4 ]

(a)

(i)

With reference to Figure 8(c), explain how the distribution of national parks and game management areas in Zambia helps to provide effective conservation.

Figure 8(c): National parks and game management areas in Zambia

225000 km^2 of Zambia is designated as protected area, including 20 national parks (8% of land) and 34 game management areas (22%).
National parks are highly protected; game management areas are less protected.
Protected areas include 224 mammal species, more than 20 endangered species, and eight Ramsar wetland sites.
Illegal poaching is a serious threat; settlements, livestock grazing, agriculture, mining and road building have fragmented ecosystems.
This biodiversity attracts tourists and has potential for further ecotourism.

[ 3 ]

(b)

Zambia's government currently relies heavily on mining for the country's income, but wants to diversify its income stream.
Two options that may contribute to sustainable development in addition to mining are:
- Forestry plantations
- Ecotourism
Evaluate these alternative options in terms of their benefit to the environment and human societies.

Figure 2: Zambia has approximately 14.64 million people and an annual population growth rate of 2.8%.
Indigenous forest covers approximately 491348 km^2; wood fuel contributes about 80% of domestic energy consumption.
Zambia has abundant wildlife, forests, water resources and mineral deposits.

Figure 4(b): 84% of Zambia export income comes from mining, although there are efforts to increase income from agriculture and manufacturing.
Most mining occurs in the Copperbelt and Northwestern Provinces; Zambia is a major producer of copper and cobalt.
Historic mining in Copperbelt Province has left 21 waste rock dumps, 9 slag heaps and 45 tailing dams with toxic metal concentrations.
The Kafue River supplies local communities; young Tilapia are unable to survive near mining areas in the Kafue River.
Mining activity in Copperbelt Province has supported an increase in local population.

Figure 6 land use changed from 1972 to 2000: agriculture/scattered dwellings/mixed vegetation increased from 40% to 59%; woodlands decreased from 56% to 32%; plantations increased from 0% to 4%.

Biome	Ecosystem	km^2	\%
Forest	Dry evergreen	15835	2.10
Forest	Deciduous	6735	0.90
Forest	Thicket	1900	0.25
Woodland	Miombo	294480	39.13
Woodland	Kalahari sand	84260	11.20
Woodland	Mopane	37010	4.92

Figure 7: Coverage of ecosystems in Zambia

225000 km^2 of Zambia is designated as protected area, including 20 national parks (8% of land) and 34 game management areas (22%).
National parks are highly protected; game management areas are less protected.
Protected areas include 224 mammal species, more than 20 endangered species, and eight Ramsar wetland sites.
Illegal poaching is a serious threat; settlements, livestock grazing, agriculture, mining and road building have fragmented ecosystems.
This biodiversity attracts tourists and has potential for further ecotourism.

Figure 8(c): National parks and game management areas in Zambia

[ 5 ]

(a)

Identify two arguments for the conservation of California condors.

Figure 2(b): California condors are scavengers and eat large amounts of carrion.
They are among the world's rarest birds; 2012 counts estimated 405 total, including 226 wild and 179 captive.
They are critically endangered and may travel up to 250 km in search of carrion.
They mature and reproduce slowly, breeding at 6-8 years old and laying only one egg every two years.
They are significant to many Californian Native American groups and traditional myths.

Figure 7(a): Condor cape and Chumash traditional dance

Figure 7(b): Chumash people historically lived in central and southern coastal California; their descendants still live there.
Old cave paintings show people wearing condor feathers for ceremonies and dances.
Condors were once sacrificed during rituals; a legend says if the condor becomes extinct, so too will the Chumash.

Figure 8(b): Tourists watching condors on the Californian coast

Tejon Ranch is a 1000 km^2 home for California condors and an important biodiversity hotspot.
In 2008 the company agreed with environmental NGOs to preserve 90% of the property, including condor feeding grounds, while development could occur on the remaining 10%.

[ 2 ]

(b)

With reference to the resource booklet, complete the table by identifying one way in which each of the following are playing a role in the conservation of California condors.

Table for roles in the conservation of California condors

Figure 8(a): Northwest Condor Watch Facebook page

Northwest Condor Watch is a communication space that links communities caring about returning condors to their northern home range.

Figure 9(a): the Ridley-Tree Condor Preservation Act made it illegal in 2008 to use lead bullets for hunting deer, bear and elk in designated California condor range.
The act applies only in California; neighbouring states still allow lead bullets for game hunting.
Organisations such as the National Rifle Association oppose the lead bullet ban.

Tejon Ranch is a 1000 km^2 home for California condors and an important biodiversity hotspot.
In 2008 the company agreed with environmental NGOs to preserve 90% of the property, including condor feeding grounds, while development could occur on the remaining 10%.

Figure 5(a): removing eggs can make the mother lay another, increasing the total number of eggs, but some chicks then need hand rearing.
Chicks are fed with condor-like glove puppets to prevent attachment to humans.
Captive-bred condors have been trained to avoid power lines and people, reducing deaths due to power lines.
The programme costs about US$5 million per year, roughly US$13,000 per bird.
The aim is three populations: wild California, wild Arizona and captive, each with 150 birds and at least 15 breeding pairs.

[ 4 ]

(i)

Using evidence from the resource booklet evaluate the success of the conservation programme for California condors.

Figure 5(a): removing eggs can make the mother lay another, increasing the total number of eggs, but some chicks then need hand rearing.
Chicks are fed with condor-like glove puppets to prevent attachment to humans.
Captive-bred condors have been trained to avoid power lines and people, reducing deaths due to power lines.
The programme costs about US$5 million per year, roughly US$13,000 per bird.
The aim is three populations: wild California, wild Arizona and captive, each with 150 birds and at least 15 breeding pairs.

Figure 5(b): Condor chick hand-reared using a condor puppet

Figure 5(c): Condor breeding centre and release sites

Figure 6: Change in California condor population over time

Figure 9(a): the Ridley-Tree Condor Preservation Act made it illegal in 2008 to use lead bullets for hunting deer, bear and elk in designated California condor range.
The act applies only in California; neighbouring states still allow lead bullets for game hunting.
Organisations such as the National Rifle Association oppose the lead bullet ban.

Figure 9(b): Lead and non-lead bullets after impact

Tejon Ranch is a 1000 km^2 home for California condors and an important biodiversity hotspot.
In 2008 the company agreed with environmental NGOs to preserve 90% of the property, including condor feeding grounds, while development could occur on the remaining 10%.

[ 4 ]

(a)

Suggest why reversing environmental degradation in Ogoniland is likely to be difficult.

Over 1.5 million tonnes of oil have spilt in the delta over the past 50 years, polluting water sources, damaging crops and fishing grounds. The delta is one of the five most polluted spots on Earth. More than 20000 hectares of mangroves have been destroyed by oil exploration. Natural gas from oil fields is burnt off as flares, potentially causing acid deposition and global warming. There is limited access to electricity, fresh water and health care. The oil industry provides few jobs. Improved transport has enabled exploitation of timber and fish resources, leading to overfishing, habitat loss, overhunting and clashes. Local people hold the oil industry responsible, and pipelines/facilities are regularly attacked.

A UN report on Ogoniland pollution called for a US$1 billion clean-up fund. It found drinking water with dangerous benzene and other pollutants, soil contamination more than five metres deep, failure by oil companies to meet standards, and spill sites claimed to be cleaned still highly contaminated. The Ogoni people fish and farm yam and cassava, worship land and rivers as God, and protect certain animals. They set up an environmental pressure group in 1990; during their non-violent campaign, Ken Saro-Wiwa was arrested, tried and hanged in 1995, causing international outrage.

Figure 1: Regional map of the Niger Delta and Ogoniland case study area

[ 4 ]

(a)

(i)

With reference to Figure 8, explain how the measures taken by the Lake Naivasha Riparian Association (LNRA) are leading to more sustainable use of water resources.

Figure 8: Ramsar wise use means maintaining wetland ecological character through ecosystem approaches in sustainable development.
The Lake Naivasha Riparian Association coordinates a plan to control threats and promote sustainable development of the lake.
Recent measures include drip irrigation, some water meters, pesticide control, codes of conduct for flower farms/geothermal/tourism, and restoration of sewage treatment.

Figure 7: Rising population has increased demand for land, firewood, charcoal and timber, leading to deforestation and soil erosion.
Threats include habitat destruction, pesticide/herbicide/fertilizer and sewage pollution, nutrient enrichment, alien species, water hyacinth invasion, siltation from overgrazing, papyrus harvesting and excessive water abstraction.
Most water abstractions are not measured; only a small section of Naivasha town has sewerage and the sewage treatment works broke down ten years ago.

[ 3 ]

(a)

Suggest two criteria that should be used to design a protected area for tigers.

[ 2 ]

(b)

The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) estimates that there are now more tigers in captivity than in the wild. Evaluate the use of zoos for the preservation of the tiger population.

[ 3 ]

(a)

A large part of the Danube River delta has been designated as a protected area. Outline the factors necessary to ensure the success of protected areas as a conservation measure.

The Danube River delta is where the Danube flows into the Black Sea and includes UNESCO Biosphere Reserves and a World Natural Heritage site.
A delta is formed by continuous deposition of sediment carried by the river; sediment adds height and helps it extend into the sea.
The delta is a wetland ecosystem rich in plants, birds and fish, including over 1000 plant species, 300 bird species and endangered sturgeon.
Moldova takes nearly 20% of its water supply requirements from a branch of the Danube.

[ 3 ]

[Maximum number: 2]

Figure 3(a): Fact file on biodiversity in Brazil

- Brazil is the largest country in South America, covering an area of over 8.5 million square kilometers.
- The country contains an exceptionally high number of species, many of which are endemic.
- Estimates of species numbers vary from 1.4 to 2.4 million, of which only a small fraction has been identified.
- Regions of high biodiversity include the Atlantic Rainforest (also known as the Mata Atlântica)
and Cerrado (Savanna).
- The Atlantic Rainforest originally covered about 15% of Brazil mainly along the Brazilian coast as well as extending into neighbouring countries of Paraguay and Argentina. The region comprises of various ecosystems including tropical and subtropical forests.
- The Cerrado region covers about 20% of the land area in central Brazil and extends into the neighbouring countries of Paraguay and Bolivia. It comprises a range of ecosystems including grasslands, savanna regions and forests.

Group	Atlantic Rainforest	Cerrado
Plants	20000 (8000 endemic)	10000 (4400 endemic)
Birds	934 (144 endemic)	607 (17 endemic)
Mammals	264 (72 endemic)	195 (14 endemic)
Amphibians	456 (282 endemic)	186 (28 endemic)

Figure 3(b): Estimated species in the Atlantic Rainforest and Cerrado

(a)

Identify two factors that make regions such as Cerrado and Atlantic Rainforest important for conservation.

Brazil is the largest country in South America and contains exceptionally high numbers of species, many endemic. Estimated species numbers vary from 1.4 to 2.4 million, with only a small fraction identified. High-biodiversity regions include the Atlantic Rainforest and Cerrado. The Atlantic Rainforest originally covered about 15% of Brazil, mainly along the coast, with tropical and subtropical forest ecosystems. The Cerrado covers about 20% of central Brazil and includes grasslands, savanna regions and forests.

Figure 2: Brazil vegetation map, including Cerrado and Atlantic Rainforest

[ 2 ]

(a)

Resource booklet context: protected areas and biodiversity
- Over 25% of land is protected forest and reserves with over 190 protected sites.
- Ecosystems range from coral reefs and mangroves to tropical rainforests and provide goods and environmental services.

Figure 5(c): Development of protected areas in Costa Rica

Explain three ways in which the development of protected areas shown in Figure 5(c) has improved the conservation of species.

[ 3 ]