8.2.12 (HL)—Urban sustainability models

A circular-economy model asks whether materials remain in useful loops; doughnut economics asks whether social needs are met without crossing ecological ceilings.

Named example—Amsterdam is developing urban circularity in food and biomass, consumer goods and construction. Reuse, repair, recovery and recycled construction inputs reduce linear take–make–dispose flows, while access to basic needs remains part of the evaluation.

Trace inputs → use → collection → reuse/repair/recovery → residual output, then test who gains access and whether energy, land, climate and biodiversity pressures remain within limits.

Calling a project circular does not prove a closed loop or social fairness; measure leakage, energy use, rebound and access.