Course review
Review each learning objective in this topic, then open its concept explanation or question set.
Learning objective
• Integration lets interacting parts coordinate an overall biological function • Systems interact across molecular, cellular, organ, organism, and ecosystem levels
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Learning objective
• Cells form tissues, organs, organ systems, and whole organisms • Emergent properties arise when subsystems interact, such as gut peristalsis and absorption
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Learning objective
• Organs are integrated by nervous signals, hormones, and blood transport • Transport links nutrients, gases, wastes, hormones, and energy substrates between organs
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Learning objective
• The brain integrates sensory input and coordinates complex responses • Cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, hypothalamus, and medulla have distinct roles
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Learning objective
• The spinal cord links brain and peripheral nervous system • It integrates unconscious processes such as reflex arcs
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Learning objective
• Sensory neurons carry impulses from receptors to spinal cord and brain • Inputs may reach cerebral hemispheres for conscious perception
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Learning objective
• Motor neurons carry impulses from CNS to skeletal muscle effectors • Voluntary muscle contraction is coordinated through cerebral hemispheres
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Learning objective
• Nerves are bundles of sensory and motor nerve fibres in connective tissue • Mixed nerves carry impulses both to and from the CNS
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Learning objective
• Pain reflexes are rapid involuntary withdrawal responses • Reflex arcs use receptors, sensory neurons, relay neurons, motor neurons, and skeletal muscle
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Learning objective
• The cerebellum coordinates timing and force of skeletal muscle contractions • It maintains balance, posture, and smooth learned movements
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Learning objective
• The pineal gland secretes melatonin according to light-dark cycles • Melatonin modulates sleep timing as part of circadian rhythms
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Learning objective
• Adrenal glands secrete epinephrine during stress or danger • It increases heart rate, ventilation, and respiratory substrate availability
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Learning objective
• The hypothalamus links nervous inputs to endocrine control • Pituitary hormones regulate glands including thyroid, gonads, adrenals, and mammary glands
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Learning objective
• Baroreceptors monitor blood pressure; chemoreceptors monitor CO₂, pH, and O₂ • The medulla adjusts sinoatrial node activity by sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves
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Learning objective
• Chemoreceptors detect CO₂-driven pH changes in blood and cerebrospinal fluid • The medulla alters diaphragm and intercostal muscle activity to change ventilation rate
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Learning objective
• The CNS controls voluntary swallowing and egestion • The enteric nervous system coordinates involuntary peristalsis in gut smooth muscle
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Learning objective
• Tropisms are directional growth responses in seedlings • Experiments compare shoot or root growth under lateral light or gravity stimuli
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Learning objective
• Shoots show positive phototropism toward lateral light • Auxin redistribution causes greater elongation on the shaded side
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Learning objective
• Phytohormones are plant signalling chemicals controlling growth and development • Auxin, cytokinin, and ethylene coordinate responses to stimuli and internal state
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Learning objective
• PIN auxin efflux carriers actively move auxin between plant cells • Asymmetric carrier placement maintains auxin gradients during tropic responses
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Learning objective
• Auxin activates proton pumping into the apoplast • Acidified cell walls loosen, allowing water uptake, elongation, and bending
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Learning objective
• Auxin generally promotes root formation; cytokinin promotes shoot formation and division • Their ratio coordinates root-shoot growth and plant tissue culture outcomes
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Learning objective
• Ethylene is a gaseous phytohormone that promotes fruit ripening • Ripening fruit releases more ethylene, creating positive feedback in nearby fruit
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