Course review
Review each learning objective in this topic, then open its concept explanation or question set.
Learning objective
• ATP is a small soluble nucleotide and universal energy currency • It links energy-yielding respiration to energy-requiring cellular processes
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Learning objective
• ATP supplies active transport, anabolic synthesis, and movement • Examples include membrane pumps, macromolecule synthesis, and chromosome movement
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Learning objective
• ATP hydrolysis to ADP and phosphate releases energy for coupled reactions • Respiration phosphorylates ADP to ATP; ATP is recycled rather than stored
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Learning objective
• Cell respiration is enzyme-controlled release of energy from organic compounds • Carbon compounds are oxidized stepwise so energy can be transferred to ATP
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Learning objective
• Aerobic respiration uses oxygen and mitochondria, producing CO₂, water, and high ATP • Anaerobic respiration in human cytoplasm produces lactate and low ATP
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Learning objective
• Rate depends on metabolic demand, organism size, oxygen, substrate, temperature, and pH • Respirometers measure oxygen uptake while soda lime absorbs CO₂
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Learning objective
• NAD accepts hydrogen during oxidation/dehydrogenation reactions • Reduced NAD carries electrons and protons to the electron transport chain
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Learning objective
• Glycolysis converts glucose to two pyruvate molecules in the cytoplasm • It is a linear pathway with substrate-level ATP and reduced NAD net yield
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Learning objective
• Pyruvate accepts hydrogen from reduced NAD to form lactate • Regenerated NAD allows glycolysis to continue
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Learning objective
• Yeast converts pyruvate to ethanol and CO₂ during alcoholic fermentation • Fermentation regenerates NAD for glycolysis and is used in baking and brewing
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Learning objective
• Pyruvate is oxidized and decarboxylated in the mitochondrial matrix • Acetyl groups join coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA for the Krebs cycle
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Learning objective
• Acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate • The cycle regenerates oxaloacetate and yields CO₂, ATP, reduced NAD, and reduced FAD
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Learning objective
• Reduced NAD and FAD donate electrons to carriers in the inner mitochondrial membrane • Electron transfers release energy while coenzymes are reoxidized
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Learning objective
• Electron transport energy pumps protons from matrix to intermembrane space • The inner membrane maintains a proton gradient and membrane potential
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Learning objective
• Protons flow through ATP synthase back into the matrix • ATP synthase couples proton flow to ADP phosphorylation by chemiosmosis
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Learning objective
• Oxygen is the terminal electron acceptor at the end of the chain • Oxygen combines with electrons and protons to form metabolic water
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Learning objective
• Lipids yield more ATP and metabolic water per gram because they are more reduced • Carbohydrates are easier to hydrolyse and enter glycolysis quickly
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