Practise defining sustainability and linking development goals to environmental and economic outcomes with case-based IB Economics SL questions.
Read the extracts and answer the questions that follow.
Text A - Overview of Uruguay
(1) With a population of only 3.5 million, Uruguay is one of the smallest nations in South America. Its membership of the MERCOSUR common market allows Uruguayan producers tariff-free access to 290 million consumers in Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay.
(2) Agriculture accounts for 8 % of Uruguay's gross domestic product (GDP) and 65 % of its export revenue. Exports have increased since the early 2000s, partly due to China's rising demand for commodities. In particular, Uruguay's soybean producers benefitted from significantly higher prices during the commodity boom. China is now Uruguay's most important export destination, with soybeans accounting for over 50 % of its exports to China.
(3) Uruguay's real GDP increased by an average of 5.39 % per year from 2005 to 2014. However, the economy slowed considerably when the commodity boom ended in 2015. It slowed further because of decreased regional demand when the largest members of MERCOSUR, Argentina and Brazil, faced a recession in 2017. Uruguay's real GDP grew on average by 1.04 % per year from 2015 to 2018.
(4) With the increasing importance of China and the European Union (EU) as export markets, Uruguay has managed to reduce its dependency on MERCOSUR. However, attempts to diversify its exports away from agriculture have not been successful. The end of the commodity boom contributed to a fall in export revenue and the depreciation of the peso (Uruguay's currency). The currency has lost over 25\% of its value since 2015.
(5) Inflation stayed at a relatively high rate of 8 % in 2018 due to the weaker currency. The unemployment rate also increased to 7.9 % as a result of the economic slowdown. The higher cost of living and the lower rates of employment could inhibit efforts to reduce inequality and poverty levels.
(6) Despite rising inflation and unemployment, Uruguay's minimal corruption, abundant natural resources and access to a large common market continue to attract foreign direct investment (FDI). Investments in the paper and wood industries have made forestry one of the country's fastest growing industries. Increased FDI inflows have also prevented the peso from depreciating further.
Text B - The EU-MERCOSUR free trade agreement
(1) The EU and MERCOSUR are finalizing the terms of a free trade agreement, which would enable Uruguay to increase its exports to the 27 EU member states. The EU currently buys 11 % of all Uruguayan exports, mostly animal products, paper, vegetables and wood.
(2) Once the free trade agreement comes into effect, almost all agricultural and industrial tariffs between the EU and MERCOSUR will be removed. The imports of beef, poultry and sugar will not be included in the list of tariff-free products but will be subject to very large quotas. This will allow increased exports of these products to EU countries.
(3) The free trade agreement may cause bankruptcies in the manufacturing sector and higher structural unemployment in Uruguay. EU exports to Uruguay largely consist of manufactured goods, such as chemicals, machinery, transport equipment and plastics, which are in high demand despite the current tariffs of up to 35 %.
(4) One third of FDI into Uruguay comes from the EU. Anticipation of the free trade agreement has led to more EU investments in Uruguay's forestry sector. Environmental organizations have warned that the free trade agreement could be a threat to sustainability as South American forests are cleared to create land for cattle farming, paper and wood production. The deforestation might also disrupt water sources that supply rural villages, depriving the villagers of clean water.
Text C — Uruguay seeks trade agreements outside MERCOSUR
(1) Members of MERCOSUR have differing views on trade policies. Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay believe in trade liberalization and want to increase competition through a reduction of the common external tariff. On the other hand, Argentina wants to maintain the high external tariff to protect industries from cheap imports from China and to avoid prolonging its current recession.
(2) Uruguay has expressed its desire to seek trade agreements apart from MERCOSUR, which is prohibited by the common market's rules. If Uruguay pursues separate bilateral agreements, it is likely to lose its MERCOSUR membership and the benefits of any existing free trade agreement.
Table 1: Current account data for Uruguay (US\$ billion)
Table 2: Selected income data for Uruguay
Define the term sustainability indicated in bold in the text (Text B, paragraph 4).
Read the extracts and answer the questions that follow.
Text A — Bangladesh: the economic role of women
(1) Bangladesh is a densely populated country in Asia. Its currency is the Bangladeshi taka (BDT). The annual rate of growth of gross domestic product (GDP) has steadily increased from 5.6 % in 2010 to 8.1 % in 2019. Absolute poverty has declined, but inequality has risen, partly due to higher unemployment rates for women than men. Moreover, the labour force participation rate for women is much lower than the rate for men. Over 80 % of the women's jobs are in the informal economy, and these jobs are low paid and insecure. Women need regular paid work, which not only raises household income but also improves economic well-being in terms of education and health.
(2) The structure of the economy is changing. The growth of cities is due to the expansion of the manufacturing sector, which now contributes a larger share to GDP than the agricultural sector. These changes have increased the number of women in the labour force. In particular, the growth of the ready-made garments (RMG) industry (mass-produced clothing) has given women the opportunity to move into formal employment. The RMG industry provides jobs for almost 4 million low-skilled and semi-skilled workers, accounting for over 40 % of total manufacturing employment. The majority of these jobs are being filled by women, with the result that the gap between the wages of men and women is gradually being reduced.
(3) There are concerns about working and safety conditions in the RMG factories. After an accident in a factory in 2013, reforms are being implemented, partly in response to criticisms from overseas retailers and consumers who purchase the garments. The minimum wage has been increased, inspections are carried out, and there are fewer small, unsafe factories.
(4) While working conditions are improving, such reforms raise the costs of manufacturing garments. Furthermore, the international garment market is becoming more competitive, putting pressure on Bangladeshi factories to reduce costs.
(5) The overseas demand for Bangladeshi garments had been rising strongly until 2019. However, demand has recently fallen, reducing firms' revenue. The reduction in revenue and the need to lower costs have forced certain firms to reduce the size of their labour force by dismissing some of their female workers.
(6) The number of ethically and environmentally concerned consumers is increasing globally. Rather than trying to lower costs, firms can be more successful if they produce "green ready-made garments" by implementing sustainable practices. About 100 garment factories in Bangladesh have already been certified as producers that meet specified environmental standards. In addition, global retailers and fashion brands are supporting recycling initiatives through the Circular Fashion Partnership.
Text B - Trade prospects for exports of ready-made garments (RMG)
(1) Exports of RMG account for over 84 % of Bangladesh's total exports. At present, Bangladesh is the world's second largest garment exporter after China. Bangladeshi exports could further increase as Chinese garments become more expensive due to rising wages in China.
(2) Bangladesh is designated as an Economically Least Developed Country (ELDC) and is therefore able to sell goods in Europe and China without any quotas or tariffs being imposed. However, Bangladesh will graduate from ELDC status by 2026 and will then no longer be eligible for preferential trade agreements. Moreover, the USA, which is the largest export market for Bangladeshi garments, has applied a 15 % tariff on imports from Bangladesh since 2013, citing concerns about working conditions in factories.
Text C - Role of foreign direct investment in the RMG sector
(1) Vietnam and Myanmar have significantly increased their garment exports to China due to foreign direct investment (FDI) from China. Chinese investors have set up factories that import raw materials from China and re-export the finished goods back to China.
(2) Consequently, to compete successfully in the huge Chinese market, Bangladesh needs to attract more FDI from China. Bangladesh is developing the required infrastructure, such as transport links. It is also necessary to diversify into expensive high-end fashion, market more aggressively, and use branding strategies.
(3) The funds from additional FDI would be helpful, because the relative contribution of Official Development Assistance (ODA) to Bangladesh's budget is declining. Furthermore, the foreign exchange obtained from foreign investors assists in financing the current account deficit.
Table 1: Economic data for Bangladesh
Table 2: Development data for Bangladesh
*estimate
Using information from the text/data and your knowledge of economics, discuss the extent to which the ready-made garments (RMG) sector in Bangladesh contributes to achieving the Sustainable Development Goal: "Promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all".
Study the following extract and answer the questions that follow.
Japan-European Union Economic Partnership Agreement (JEEPA)
(1) In July 2017, the Japan-European Union Economic Partnership Agreement (JEEPA) was announced and it may come into force in 2019. Jointly, Japan and the European Union (EU) currently account for 28 % of global gross domestic product (GDP). The trade agreement could raise the EU's exports to Japan by 34 % and Japan's exports to the EU by 29 %. Economists say that this trade agreement marks a determined effort to combat rising protectionism and sends a powerful signal that cooperation, not trade protection, is the way to tackle global challenges.
(2) The largest benefit to Japan will be for Japanese car manufacturers, as Europe will gradually lower tariffs from 10 % on Japanese cars. Car tariffs are a big concern for Japanese car manufacturers, who struggle to compete with South Korean car manufacturers. South Korean cars are sold to the EU tariff-free thanks to a free trade agreement signed in 2011. Within Europe, car manufacturers are one of the largest sources of jobs. Car manufacturers in the EU are concerned that cutting tariffs on car imports from Japan may lead to a large increase of Japanese cars into the European market.
(3) The trade agreement will also resolve non-tariff barriers, such as technical requirements and regulations. More importantly, however, the EU and Japan will make their environmental and safety standards on cars the same, which will make trade easier.
(4) Japanese politicians have been defending their relatively inefficient farmers for a long time. Now, Japan will lower tariffs on European meat, dairy products and wine, cutting 85 % of the tariffs on food products coming into Japan. This includes removing the current 30 % tariff on some European cheeses, such as cheddar and gouda cheese. However, imported camembert cheese will face a quota. This may be because Japan produces some camembert cheese.
(5) JEEPA is particularly alarming for United States (US) beef and pork farmers because Japan has been the biggest export market for US beef and the second biggest export market for US pork. Any preferential tariff that EU farmers receive will make it much tougher for American farmers to sell meat in Japan.
(6) With this trade agreement, the EU and Japan are trying to promote the values of economic cooperation and environmental conservation, which are both important for long-term economic growth and sustainability. However, JEEPA faces significant challenges because it will have to be passed by the Japanese Parliament, the European Parliament and European national governments. There is no guarantee that all governments will agree to the economic partnership. 15 July 2017; Japan-EU trade agreement may hurt U.S. meat producers, by Katherine Hyunjung Lee, Jul 12, 2017, Medill News Service, https://dc.medill.northwestern.edu; and A new trade deal between the EU and Japan, The Economist (London, England), Jul 8th 2017, https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2017/07/08/a-new-trade-deal-between-the-eu-and
japan. © The Economist Newspaper Limited, London, July 8th 2017]
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Define the term sustainability indicated in bold in the text (paragraph 6).