Course review
Review each learning objective in this topic, then open its concept explanation or question set.
Learning objective
• Asexual reproduction uses mitosis without gametes or fertilization, producing clones • Sexual reproduction uses meiosis and fertilization to generate genetic variation
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Learning objective
• Meiosis produces haploid gametes and prevents chromosome doubling each generation • Random fertilization fuses gametes to form unique diploid zygotes
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Learning objective
• Male gametes are small, numerous, and usually motile • Female gametes are larger, fewer, and contain resources for early development
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Learning objective
• Male structures include testes, epididymis, sperm duct, glands, urethra, and penis • Female structures include ovaries, oviducts, uterus, endometrium, cervix, vagina, and vulva
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Learning objective
• FSH, LH, oestradiol, and progesterone coordinate ovarian and uterine cycles • Follicle growth, ovulation, corpus luteum, endometrium build-up, and menstruation are linked
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Learning objective
• Fertilization occurs in the oviduct after sperm reaches the egg • Sperm and egg nuclei fuse so paternal and maternal chromosomes form the zygote genome
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Learning objective
• IVF uses hormones to stimulate superovulation and control egg maturation • Eggs are collected, fertilized outside the body, and embryos transferred to the uterus
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Learning objective
• Flowering plants produce male gametes in pollen and female gametes in ovules • Pollination, pollen-tube growth, and fertilization produce embryos inside seeds
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Learning objective
• Insect-pollinated flowers often have petals, scent, nectar, sticky pollen, and sticky stigma • Floral structures position pollinators to transfer pollen from anther to stigma
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Learning objective
• Cross-pollination increases variation by transferring pollen between different plants • Mechanisms include dioecy, self-incompatibility, and different maturation times
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Learning objective
• Self-incompatibility prevents pollen from fertilizing ovules of the same plant • Recognition systems block self-pollen growth and reduce inbreeding
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Learning objective
• Seed dispersal reduces competition with parent plants and spreads offspring • Germination uses water uptake, enzyme activation, and food reserve mobilization
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Learning objective
• GnRH from the hypothalamus stimulates pituitary FSH and LH release • Oestradiol and testosterone drive primary and secondary sexual development
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Learning objective
• Spermatogenesis produces four sperm by equal divisions and differentiation • Oogenesis produces one ovum and polar bodies by unequal cytokinesis
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Learning objective
• Acrosome enzymes allow sperm penetration of the zona pellucida • Cortical granule release changes the zona pellucida to block polyspermy
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Learning objective
• Cleavage divisions form a morula and then a blastocyst with inner cell mass • The blastocyst implants in the endometrium and begins placental development
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Learning objective
• Early embryo/placenta secretes hCG to maintain the corpus luteum • Pregnancy tests use monoclonal antibodies to detect hCG in urine
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Learning objective
• Placental villi provide large surface area for exchange without mixing blood • The placenta transfers gases, nutrients, wastes, antibodies, and hormones
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Learning objective
• Progesterone and oestradiol maintain endometrium and inhibit further ovulation • Oxytocin and prostaglandins create positive feedback during childbirth contractions
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Learning objective
• HRT replaces declining oestradiol/progesterone after menopause to reduce symptoms • Evaluate benefits against risks including coronary heart disease and other side effects
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