Practise leadership theories, styles and gender, plus leadership and followership measurement, applying adaptive principles and evaluating psychometric evidence.
From the key study by Cuadrado et al. (2008) on women's access to managerial positions:
Suggest one method that could be used to study women's access to managerial positions, other than a laboratory experiment.
Award 2 marks for an appropriate suggestion stated and applied to study with detail / elaboration / example.
Award 1 mark for an appropriate suggestion identified but not applied.
Answers may include:
- a field experiment ( 1 ) where workers can complete the study, narrative and questionnaires in their working environment (2)
- a 'questionnaire package' (1) where workers can complete both narrative and questionnaires by post, face-to-face with a researcher or online (2)
- an interview (1) where workers can complete both narrative and questionnaires face-to-face with a researcher (2)
Other appropriate responses to be credited.
Describe what psychologists have discovered about:
- Kouzes and Posner's Leadership Practices Inventory, and
- Kelley's five followership styles.
Use Table A: AO1 Knowledge and understanding to mark candidate responses
to this question.
Answers may include:
Kouzes and Posner's Leadership Practices Inventory including five
practices
Measures the extent to which a leader engages in the five practices of
exemplary leadership. Six behavioural statements are given for each of these
practices. Five practices = model the way, inspire the shared vision, challenge
the process, enable others to act, encourage the heart.
30 specific leadership behaviours are measured on a ten-point scale. (1-almost never, 10 - almost always). Observers also do these ratings, and this
can be from manager, co-worker, etc. Total responses for each practice can
range from 6-60 and the worker receives a score for each practice that they
gave as well as the scores of the observers. Comparisons can be made
between the employee/observer responses and over 1 million observer
responses for other leaders who have taken the LPI.
Finally, there are open ended questions at the end of the inventory for the
observer to answer. The leader is shown these in their final report. For
example, 'What would you like to see this leader do more of?'
Kelley's (1988) five followership styles
Types include -
Sheep are passive and uncritical, lacking in initiative and sense of
responsibility.
Yes people - dependent on the leader for inspiration. They are committed to
the leader/organisation but are uncritical and conformist.
Alienated followers critical and independent in their thinking but passive in
carrying out their role.
6
Award up to 4 marks where the response has described only part of the question even if the response otherwise meets the criteria for Level 3.
If no mention of LPI award max L2.
16(a)
Survivors (pragmatics) - adapt at surviving change. They are conservative in their views and will wait until the majority of the group support innovative ideas before giving their support. They hold the view of 'better safe than sorry' Effective followers (star followers) - Independent and think for themselves. Carry out their duties with energy and effectiveness.
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about:
- Kouzes and Posner's Leadership Practices Inventory, and
- Kelley's five followership styles, including a discussion about psychometrics.
Evaluation in your answer can include strengths, weaknesses and a discussion of issues and debates.
Use Table B: AO3 Analysis and evaluation to mark candidate responses to this question.
A range of issues could be used for evaluation. These include:
- Named issue - psychometrics - The LPI is a psychometric test
- Strengths -
- Reliable as standardised self-reports given to employees/managers.
- Quantitative data - comparisons can be made between the five practices, compare changes over time, between employees/departments.
- Useful as can make comparisons to 1 million other leaders who have taken the LPI
- Weaknesses -
- Can lack reliability if different employees have a different understanding of the questions asked.
- Lack of validity due to social desirability
- No qualitative data is collected so lacks depth and limited answers available (although the LPI also collects qualitative data)
- Application to everyday life - can use the LPI to determine the type of leader an individual is and make sure that the needs of the team match the type of leader employed. Can be used in appraisals and low scores can identify areas for the leader to improve. Identify what type of follower each employee is and ensure that their job role matches their follower type as closely as possible. Can be used to recruit new employees as the best type of followers for different job roles can be identified when vacant.
10
N v N - Kelley believes the type of follower
we are is something we are born with.
16(b)
- Cultural differences - Both LPI/five practices and Kelley's types of followers were created for Western companies. For example, one of the practices is 'enabling others to act' which is a more westernised view of effective leadership where the leader encourages others to take responsibility for projects, find solutions, etc. This may not be suitable in countries where leaders are expected to make all of the decisions and direct their employees. Similar to this Kelley's types of followers are a westernised view of employees working under a manager where there is an acceptance that employees will be different in terms of their behaviour and all types of followers can add value to the company. Non-western countries may value uniformity in their workers more or just be looking for one type of follower (i.e. someone who will follow instructions).
- Idiographic and nomothetic - Both LPI/five practices and Kelley's types of followers are general laws (nomothetic) about the five practices of leadership and the types of followers. However, the LPI does provide an idiographic report for the leader that is unique to them.
- Self-reports - LPI is a self-report (questionnaire). Strengths - employees may be more willing to be honest as it is a questionnaire so it could be easier to express their true feelings about their leader; can discover how the employee views the leader (which would not be possible through observation). Weaknesses - although employees may be more willing to be honest, they may still give socially desirable responses, they may find it difficult to answer all of the questions as may be either unaware of the leader's abilities in a particular area or uncertain what their opinion is (NOTE - do not credit evaluation of psychometrics twice)
Other issues could include:
- Nature versus nurture
- Individual versus situational
- Evaluation of qualitative and quantitative data
- Objective/subjective data
- Validity
- Reliability
- Reductionism versus holism.
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.