Practise organisational psychology through motivation, leadership, groups, work conditions and job satisfaction, applying studies, methods and debates to workplaces.
Describe what psychologists studying motivation to work have discovered about:
- Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and
- McClelland's theory of achievement motivation.
Use Table A: AO1 Knowledge and understanding to mark candidate responses to this question.
Candidates must discuss both Maslow's hierarchy of needs and McClelland's theory of achievement motivation, but do not need to use the example of Saeednia's study from the syllabus.
Hierarchy of needs - Maslow
Maslow's theory proposes a hierarchy with the most basic needs of an individual at the bottom and gradually becoming more complex as the hierarchy is climbed. Originally proposed as a five-tier hierarchy it was further expanded to 7 and then 8 levels (as illustrated).
In the original model:
1. Physiological (survival)- food, drink, warmth, shelter etc.
2. Safety - security and protection from harm;
a need for law and order (e.g. safety protocols at work)
3. Social-need for relationships, affection and family
4. Esteem - need for achievement, mastery and status
5. Self-actualisation - realising potential and fulfilment
6
Award up to 4 marks where the response has described only part of the question even if the response otherwise meets the criteria for Level 3.
Max L2 if not linked to motivation at work or just work. 5 marks - 1 linked
6 marks - both linked
16(a)
In order to progress to higher levels, Maslow believed the
more basic needs had to be satisfied.
Workers have to have their physiological needs met before they can progress to the next level of the pyramid.
The additional needs added:
- Cognitive - having knowledge and understanding
- Aesthetic - appreciation for art, music, beauty
- Transcendent - helping other to self-actualise
Saaednia (2011)
Study designed to develop reliable measure of basic-needs- satisfaction of young children. 13 participants had an open- ended interview that collected qualitative data (the participant, parent and educator interviewed). Measure was
developed and included Maslow's five needs plus the need
to know and understand which was then given to 300 participants. Found measure to reliable and relatively valid.
Achievement motivation - McClelland
McClelland asserted that we have 3 work-related needs. All workers need:
1 Achievement - the desire to get a job done, master
tasks and be successful. We want to be able to achieve on the basis of hard work rather than luck.
2 Affiliation - the desire to be accepted and liked by
others. Effort is employed to create and maintain friendships and relationships with colleagues.
3 Power - the desire to influence others' lives as well as
in the control of others. The need for discipline is
important.
16(a)
Like ERG theory, achievement motivation is not a hierarchy. McClelland asserted that good managers have the need for power, not necessarily the need for achievement and certainly not the need for affiliation.
Need for affiliation can be measured using the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). These are a series of ambiguous images that an individual is asked to interpret.
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Evaluate what psychologists studying motivation to work have discovered about:
- Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and
- McClelland's theory of achievement motivation, including a discussion about determinism versus free-will.
Evaluation in your answer can include strengths, weaknesses and a discussion of issues and debates.
Use Table B: AO3 Analysis and evaluation to mark candidate responses to this question.
Depending on the examples studied by candidates their answers may vary.
A range of issues could be used for evaluation.
These include:
- Named issue - determinism versus free will -
Maslow's hierarchy was born out of the humanistic
approach in psychology. This approach is the least
deterministic of all approaches and so free will should be an essential principle. However, the hierarchy of needs appears to have deterministic elements. For example, the fulfilment on one level in order to progress to another is deterministic and more so than is present
in McClelland's theory which is not hierarchical.
- Applications to everyday life - the fact that Maslow's
hierarchy is so well-known in management
courses/organisations is testament to its usefulness.
Clearly ideas from within both theories can be used to apply to organisations to motivate employees e.g.
making sure workers feel safe and secure in their work environment as without this need being met, they will not be able to work with a desire to succeed.
10
16(b)
- Individual and situational - Both can be seen as individual to an extent because each of us will have different individual needs and one individual may feel safe while another does not. However, as they are all based around motivation, it is clear that in many cases a manipulation of the environment (the situation) can change motivation.
- Cultural differences - All of these need theories do focus on 'need'. The needs of the individual are very much a Western focus and so such theories are less likely to apply in more collectivist cultures where needs would be seen as group needs rather than those of the individual and so these ideas would not apply. The Saeednia study was carried out in Tehran, Iran which is a wealthy city, and the researcher notes that results cannot be applied to rural areas.
- Validity - of the Saeednia study (or any relevant study) may be considered with issues surrounding the collection of qualitative data, interviews, generalisability, etc. For example, the study has good validity as the results from the interview with the child participant were then checked with the parent and educator. The TAT gives qualitative data, but it may be difficult for the interviewer to determine the need for affiliation. Issues surrounding difficulties in determining where employees are in the hierarchy or how satisfied a worker is with their three needs being met at work may be discussed.
Additional issues candidates may include
- ethics
- evaluation of self-reports
- reliability
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Yash is the sales manager of a chocolate company that sells chocolate online. He wants to expand their sales into grocery stores within the next month.
Suggest a SMART goal Yash can set for his sales team to expand their sales into grocery stores within the next month.
Award 3-4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of SMART target linked to help expand sales in the next month.
Award 1-2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of SMART target linked to help expand sales in the next month.
Example:
Specific - Make contacts with buyers in grocery stores.
Measurable - each employee should make 8 contacts with buyers in grocery stores.
Attainable - this is an achievable number of contacts to make within the next month.
Relevant - Contact must be made with the buyers/purchasing department of the grocery store as these are the people who will decide to stock their chocolate.
Time-based - to be completed within a month.
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
4
Need to address three of the five SMART for full marks.
1 mark if not linked to chocolate/sales team/grocery stores.
Feba is a manager in an IT company. She has decided to monitor her employees while they work from home to improve their productivity on their tasks.
Suggest one way that Feba could monitor the productivity of her employees while they work at home.
Feba is a manager in an IT company. She has decided to monitor her employees while they work from home to improve their productivity on their tasks.
Suggest one way that Feba could monitor the productivity of her employees while they work at home.
Award 2 marks for an outline of monitoring employees' productivity.
Award 1 mark for a basic outline/identification of monitoring employees' productivity.
Syllabus content:
Performance monitoring of employee productivity (exemplified by the following key study).
Key study looking at concentration levels when being monitored: Claypoole and Szalma (2019), focus on experiment 1, specifics of methodology for experiment 2 will not be needed.
Likely suggestions:
- Webcam
- Video recorder
- Electronic performance monitoring
- Counting/monitoring mouse clicks/movements
Example:
Feba could set up a webcam on the employee's home computer. (1) This will monitor productivity as Feba will be able to see when her employees are working and how long it takes them to submit a task. (1)
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
2
1 mark - specific idea (not just identification)
1 mark - how it will monitor productivity
Explain why the way you have given in part (a) would improve productivity on tasks.
Explain why the way you have given in part (a) would improve productivity on tasks.
Award 2 marks for an explanation of why the application would improve productivity.
Award 1 mark for a basic outline/identification of why the application would improve productivity.
Example:
The findings by Claypoole and Szalma were that sustained attention improved in the participants when they were being monitored by the webcam compared to the control group that wasn't being monitored. (1) Feba monitoring her employees using a webcam should find that productivity on tasks increases while she is monitoring them as they will feel pressured to work while being watched. (1)
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
2
Hawthorne effect is creditworthy if relevant to the way suggested in part (a).
Describe what psychologists have discovered about:
- Kouzes and Posner's Leadership Practices Inventory, and
- Kelley's five followership styles.
Use Table A: AO1 Knowledge and understanding to mark candidate responses
to this question.
Answers may include:
Kouzes and Posner's Leadership Practices Inventory including five
practices
Measures the extent to which a leader engages in the five practices of
exemplary leadership. Six behavioural statements are given for each of these
practices. Five practices = model the way, inspire the shared vision, challenge
the process, enable others to act, encourage the heart.
30 specific leadership behaviours are measured on a ten-point scale. (1-almost never, 10 - almost always). Observers also do these ratings, and this
can be from manager, co-worker, etc. Total responses for each practice can
range from 6-60 and the worker receives a score for each practice that they
gave as well as the scores of the observers. Comparisons can be made
between the employee/observer responses and over 1 million observer
responses for other leaders who have taken the LPI.
Finally, there are open ended questions at the end of the inventory for the
observer to answer. The leader is shown these in their final report. For
example, 'What would you like to see this leader do more of?'
Kelley's (1988) five followership styles
Types include -
Sheep are passive and uncritical, lacking in initiative and sense of
responsibility.
Yes people - dependent on the leader for inspiration. They are committed to
the leader/organisation but are uncritical and conformist.
Alienated followers critical and independent in their thinking but passive in
carrying out their role.
6
Award up to 4 marks where the response has described only part of the question even if the response otherwise meets the criteria for Level 3.
If no mention of LPI award max L2.
16(a)
Survivors (pragmatics) - adapt at surviving change. They are conservative in their views and will wait until the majority of the group support innovative ideas before giving their support. They hold the view of 'better safe than sorry' Effective followers (star followers) - Independent and think for themselves. Carry out their duties with energy and effectiveness.
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about:
- Kouzes and Posner's Leadership Practices Inventory, and
- Kelley's five followership styles, including a discussion about psychometrics.
Evaluation in your answer can include strengths, weaknesses and a discussion of issues and debates.
Use Table B: AO3 Analysis and evaluation to mark candidate responses to this question.
A range of issues could be used for evaluation. These include:
- Named issue - psychometrics - The LPI is a psychometric test
- Strengths -
- Reliable as standardised self-reports given to employees/managers.
- Quantitative data - comparisons can be made between the five practices, compare changes over time, between employees/departments.
- Useful as can make comparisons to 1 million other leaders who have taken the LPI
- Weaknesses -
- Can lack reliability if different employees have a different understanding of the questions asked.
- Lack of validity due to social desirability
- No qualitative data is collected so lacks depth and limited answers available (although the LPI also collects qualitative data)
- Application to everyday life - can use the LPI to determine the type of leader an individual is and make sure that the needs of the team match the type of leader employed. Can be used in appraisals and low scores can identify areas for the leader to improve. Identify what type of follower each employee is and ensure that their job role matches their follower type as closely as possible. Can be used to recruit new employees as the best type of followers for different job roles can be identified when vacant.
10
N v N - Kelley believes the type of follower
we are is something we are born with.
16(b)
- Cultural differences - Both LPI/five practices and Kelley's types of followers were created for Western companies. For example, one of the practices is 'enabling others to act' which is a more westernised view of effective leadership where the leader encourages others to take responsibility for projects, find solutions, etc. This may not be suitable in countries where leaders are expected to make all of the decisions and direct their employees. Similar to this Kelley's types of followers are a westernised view of employees working under a manager where there is an acceptance that employees will be different in terms of their behaviour and all types of followers can add value to the company. Non-western countries may value uniformity in their workers more or just be looking for one type of follower (i.e. someone who will follow instructions).
- Idiographic and nomothetic - Both LPI/five practices and Kelley's types of followers are general laws (nomothetic) about the five practices of leadership and the types of followers. However, the LPI does provide an idiographic report for the leader that is unique to them.
- Self-reports - LPI is a self-report (questionnaire). Strengths - employees may be more willing to be honest as it is a questionnaire so it could be easier to express their true feelings about their leader;
can discover how the employee views the leader (which would not be possible through observation). Weaknesses - although employees may be more willing to be honest, they may still give socially desirable responses, they may find it difficult to answer all of the questions as may be either unaware of the leader's abilities in a particular area or uncertain what their opinion is (NOTE - do not credit evaluation of psychometrics twice)
Other issues could include:
- Nature versus nurture
- Individual versus situational
- Evaluation of qualitative and quantitative data
- Objective/subjective data
- Validity
- Reliability
- Reductionism versus holism.
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.