Practise organisational psychology through motivation, leadership, groups, work conditions and job satisfaction, applying studies, methods and debates to workplaces.
Describe what psychologists studying motivation to work have discovered about:
- Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and
- McClelland's theory of achievement motivation.
Use Table A: AO1 Knowledge and understanding to mark candidate responses to this question.
Candidates must discuss both Maslow's hierarchy of needs and McClelland's theory of achievement motivation, but do not need to use the example of Saeednia's study from the syllabus.
Hierarchy of needs - Maslow
Maslow's theory proposes a hierarchy with the most basic needs of an individual at the bottom and gradually becoming more complex as the hierarchy is climbed. Originally proposed as a five-tier hierarchy it was further expanded to 7 and then 8 levels (as illustrated).
In the original model:
1. Physiological (survival)- food, drink, warmth, shelter etc.
2. Safety - security and protection from harm; a need for law and order (e.g. safety protocols at work)
3. Social-need for relationships, affection and family
4. Esteem - need for achievement, mastery and status
5. Self-actualisation - realising potential and fulfilment
6
Award up to 4 marks where the response has described only part of the question even if the response otherwise meets the criteria for Level 3.
Max L2 if not linked to motivation at work or just work. 5 marks - 1 linked
6 marks - both linked
16(a)
In order to progress to higher levels, Maslow believed the
more basic needs had to be satisfied.
Workers have to have their physiological needs met before they can progress to the next level of the pyramid.
The additional needs added:
- Cognitive - having knowledge and understanding
- Aesthetic - appreciation for art, music, beauty
- Transcendent - helping other to self-actualise
Saaednia (2011)
Study designed to develop reliable measure of basic-needs- satisfaction of young children. 13 participants had an open- ended interview that collected qualitative data (the participant, parent and educator interviewed). Measure was
developed and included Maslow's five needs plus the need
to know and understand which was then given to 300 participants. Found measure to reliable and relatively valid.
Achievement motivation - McClelland
McClelland asserted that we have 3 work-related needs. All workers need:
1 Achievement - the desire to get a job done, master
tasks and be successful. We want to be able to achieve on the basis of hard work rather than luck.
2 Affiliation - the desire to be accepted and liked by
others. Effort is employed to create and maintain friendships and relationships with colleagues.
3 Power - the desire to influence others' lives as well as
in the control of others. The need for discipline is
important.
16(a)
Like ERG theory, achievement motivation is not a hierarchy. McClelland asserted that good managers have the need for power, not necessarily the need for achievement and certainly not the need for affiliation.
Need for affiliation can be measured using the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). These are a series of ambiguous images that an individual is asked to interpret.
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Evaluate what psychologists studying motivation to work have discovered about:
- Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and
- McClelland's theory of achievement motivation, including a discussion about determinism versus free-will.
Evaluation in your answer can include strengths, weaknesses and a discussion of issues and debates.
Use Table B: AO3 Analysis and evaluation to mark candidate responses to this question.
Depending on the examples studied by candidates their answers may vary.
A range of issues could be used for evaluation.
These include:
- Named issue - determinism versus free will -
Maslow's hierarchy was born out of the humanistic
approach in psychology. This approach is the least
deterministic of all approaches and so free will should be an essential principle. However, the hierarchy of needs appears to have deterministic elements. For example, the fulfilment on one level in order to progress to another is deterministic and more so than is present
in McClelland's theory which is not hierarchical.
- Applications to everyday life - the fact that Maslow's
hierarchy is so well-known in management
courses/organisations is testament to its usefulness.
Clearly ideas from within both theories can be used to apply to organisations to motivate employees e.g.
making sure workers feel safe and secure in their work environment as without this need being met, they will not be able to work with a desire to succeed.
10
16(b)
- Individual and situational - Both can be seen as individual to an extent because each of us will have different individual needs and one individual may feel safe while another does not. However, as they are all based around motivation, it is clear that in many cases a manipulation of the environment (the situation) can change motivation.
- Cultural differences - All of these need theories do focus on 'need'. The needs of the individual are very much a Western focus and so such theories are less likely to apply in more collectivist cultures where needs would be seen as group needs rather than those of the individual and so these ideas would not apply. The Saeednia study was carried out in Tehran, Iran which is a wealthy city, and the researcher notes that results cannot be applied to rural areas.
- Validity - of the Saeednia study (or any relevant study) may be considered with issues surrounding the collection of qualitative data, interviews, generalisability, etc. For example, the study has good validity as the results from the interview with the child participant were then checked with the parent and educator. The TAT gives qualitative data, but it may be difficult for the interviewer to determine the need for affiliation. Issues surrounding difficulties in determining where employees are in the hierarchy or how satisfied a worker is with their three needs being met at work may be discussed.
Additional issues candidates may include
- ethics
- evaluation of self-reports
- reliability
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
Describe how data was collected in one study about the impact of the design of the work environment on people who work in open plan offices (e.g. Oldham and Brass, 1979).
open plan offices (e.g. Oldham and Brass, 1979).
Syllabus: 4.4.1 impact of the design of the work environment focusing on open plan offices, including a study, e.g. Oldham and Brass (1979).
Marks: Award 2 marks for a detailed description. Award 1 mark for a partial description.
Answers may include (other appropriate responses to be credited):
- a longitudinal study taking measures over time (1 mark) which could be baseline (pre-move), one week after move, six weeks after move ( 2 marks).
- closed questionnaires with a 7-point scale (1 mark) to assess differences in autonomy, skills variety or any other job characteristic (2 marks)
- participants were interviewed. Employees described the new office space as a 'fishbowl,' 'cage,' or 'warehouse', reflecting on an inability to concentrate, to develop close friendships, and to complete a job. It was impossible in the open office to engage in a private conversation either with co-workers or with supervisors.
Suggest how one job characteristic might be affected by a move to a different type of office.
Marks: Award 2 marks for an appropriate suggestion and applied to study with detail / elaboration / example.
Award 1 mark for an appropriate suggestion identified but not applied.
Answers may include (other appropriate responses to be credited):
Hackman and Oldham (1976) list the following job characteristics:
- skills variety
- task identity
- task significance
- responsibility (autonomy)
- knowledge of outcome (feedback)
Can add:
- concentration
- friendship opportunities (social relations)
Explain one strength and one weakness of the way that data was collected in the study you described in part (a).
Explain one strength and one weakness with the way that data was collected in the study you described in part (a).
Marks: Up to 2 marks for each strength and up to 2 marks for each weakness.
Award 2 marks for an appropriate strength/weakness stated and applied as required by the question with detail / elaboration / example.
Award 1 mark for an appropriate strength/weakness stated but not applied.
Answers may include (other appropriate responses to be credited):
Strengths:
- the same participants might be measured over time (1 mark) measures can be taken in the same participants before the office move, just after the move and again after a longer period of time (2 marks)
- the same measures could be repeated with the same participants which makes the study reliable. (1 mark)
Weaknesses:
- participants may begin the study but drop out (1 mark) a worker might be measured before the move, but leave the company before the other two measures can be taken because they don't like open-plan offices ( 2 marks)
- once the study has started changes to the design cannot be made (1 mark) so if a new variable appears after the move it cannot be included as no baseline was taken before the move ( 2 marks)
Yash is the sales manager of a chocolate company that sells chocolate online. He wants to expand their sales into grocery stores within the next month.
Suggest a SMART goal Yash can set for his sales team to expand their sales into grocery stores within the next month.
Award 3-4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of SMART target linked to help expand sales in the next month.
Award 1-2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of SMART target linked to help expand sales in the next month.
Example:
Specific - Make contacts with buyers in grocery stores.
Measurable - each employee should make 8 contacts with buyers in grocery stores.
Attainable - this is an achievable number of contacts to make within the next month.
Relevant - Contact must be made with the buyers/purchasing department of the grocery store as these are the people who will decide to stock their chocolate.
Time-based - to be completed within a month.
Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
4
Need to address three of the five SMART for full marks.
1 mark if not linked to chocolate/sales team/grocery stores.