Practise evaluating environmental law across local, national, regional and international scales through enforcement, development capacity, compliance and NGO action.
Opponents say tar sands produce three times more greenhouse gas emissions than conventional fossil fuels; fossil fuels are burned to heat extraction water; underground carbon stores become available; oil produced is burned; boreal forest is cut down; wildlife is displaced or dies; only 10% of water taken from the Athabasca River is returned; toxic waste ponds may leak into river and groundwater; indigenous people may be displaced and face health impacts. Supporters say tar sands improve energy security for Canada and the USA; Canada supplied much crude oil to the USA; Keystone XL may create jobs; companies reinvest in carbon capture and storage; 7.5 million trees have been replanted.
Writer A states that mining infrastructure has cleared 30000 ha of forest and that 300000 ha more could be cleared, describing the industry as a major carbon dioxide emitter. Writer B states that surface mining has affected 0.1% of Canada’s boreal forest and that Alberta oil sands projects account for less than one-tenth of one percent of global greenhouse gas emissions.
Suggest the role that non-governmental organizations could play in reducing the impact of the tar (oil) sands mining industry.
Figure:Map showing the location of Ecuador
Figure:Ecosystems of Ecuador
Figure:Ecological footprint (per person) and biocapacity (1965-2020)
Figure:Map of the SOTE pipeline and proposed OCP pipeline routes
Figure:Timeline for the OCP oil pipeline
Figure:Ecuador's energy consumption by source (1965-2023)
Figure:Ecuador's main exports by value (billions of USD) for 2022
Figure:Topographic map and percentage cloud frequency map of Ecuador
Figure:Relationship of cloud forest with hydrological cycle
Figure:Fact file on Mindo cloud forest
Figure:Fact file on Mindo harlequin toad
Figure:Protected corridor proposal to connect Mindo cloud forest with other Ecuadorian reserves
Biocapacity is the amount of biological productive land, measured in hectares per person.
\footnotetext{
* Endemic species refers to those species only found in a given region
}
Key:
- The existing OCP pipeline northern route that was completed in 2003
(OCP = Oleoducto de Crudos Pesados)
- The proposed OCP southern route that was rejected in favour of the northern route
- The SOTE pipeline that was completed in 1972
(SOTE = Sistema del Oleoducto Transecuatoriano)
□ Protected nature area
SOTE is operated by the government and OCP is run privately. Both coexist today and are fully functional.
Figure: Fact file on Ecuador’s energy choices: Fact file on Ecuador's energy choices
- Ecuador's mountainous terrain and rivers allow for hydropower generation, however this does not work in dry weather conditions.
- During dry weather conditions, Ecuador relies on oil-fired plants for power generation.
- Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) is subsidized by the government and is commonly used in household cooking and heating water.
- A new programme seeks to change the energy source for residential kitchens from LPG to more efficient electric induction cookers.
*Each wedge represents billions in USD
Figure: Cloud forest tree adaptation for water condensation and absorption
Trees in the Mindo cloud forest have several adaptations that are crucial for their survival. These adaptations include:
- Fog drip utilization: this is when water droplets in fog condense on the leaves and drip to the forest floor. This increases the water content in the soil at the base of the tree.
- Leaf structure: leaves are often smaller and thicker, reducing water loss from transpiration. The leaves are also able to absorb water directly via a process called foliar uptake, more efficiently than trees outside of the cloud forest.
- Tree crowns: the crown or top of the tree disrupts wind driven cloud moisture forming fog drip.
red and falls off.
There is no cure and those infected experience mortality.
With reference to the information in the resource booklet, discuss to what extent Ecuador has been effective at meeting its legal obligation to conserve nature (Pachamama).
Evaluate the policies or legislation or actions that exist locally, nationally and internationally that address this issue.