Practise evaluating environmental law across local, national, regional and international scales through enforcement, development capacity, compliance and NGO action.
Opponents say tar sands produce three times more greenhouse gas emissions than conventional fossil fuels; fossil fuels are burned to heat extraction water; underground carbon stores become available; oil produced is burned; boreal forest is cut down; wildlife is displaced or dies; only 10% of water taken from the Athabasca River is returned; toxic waste ponds may leak into river and groundwater; indigenous people may be displaced and face health impacts. Supporters say tar sands improve energy security for Canada and the USA; Canada supplied much crude oil to the USA; Keystone XL may create jobs; companies reinvest in carbon capture and storage; 7.5 million trees have been replanted.
Writer A states that mining infrastructure has cleared 30000 ha of forest and that 300000 ha more could be cleared, describing the industry as a major carbon dioxide emitter. Writer B states that surface mining has affected 0.1% of Canada’s boreal forest and that Alberta oil sands projects account for less than one-tenth of one percent of global greenhouse gas emissions.
Suggest the role that non-governmental organizations could play in reducing the impact of the tar (oil) sands mining industry.
Figure:Map showing the location of Ecuador
Figure:Ecosystems of Ecuador
Figure:Ecological footprint (per person) and biocapacity (1965-2020)
| Taxonomic group | Total species | Endemic species* |
|---|---|---|
| Plants | 25560 | 5348 |
| Vertebrates | 2794 | 436 |
| Mammals | 362 | 30 |
| Birds | 1616 | 52 |
| Reptiles | 394 | 114 |
| Amphibians | 422 | 240 |
Table:Species diversity among different taxonomic groups in Ecuador in 2020
Figure:Map of the SOTE pipeline and proposed OCP pipeline routes
Figure:Timeline for the OCP oil pipeline
Figure:Ecuador's energy consumption by source (1965-2023)
Figure:Ecuador's main exports by value (billions of USD) for 2022
Figure:Topographic map and percentage cloud frequency map of Ecuador
Figure:Relationship of cloud forest with hydrological cycle
Figure:Fact file on Mindo cloud forest
Figure:Fact file on Mindo harlequin toad
Figure:Protected corridor proposal to connect Mindo cloud forest with other Ecuadorian reserves
Biocapacity is the amount of biological productive land, measured in hectares per person.
* Endemic species refers to those species only found in a given region
Key:
- The existing OCP pipeline northern route that was completed in 2003
(OCP = Oleoducto de Crudos Pesados)
- The proposed OCP southern route that was rejected in favour of the northern route
- The SOTE pipeline that was completed in 1972
(SOTE = Sistema del Oleoducto Transecuatoriano)
□ Protected nature area
SOTE is operated by the government and OCP is run privately. Both coexist today and are fully functional.
Figure 7(a): Fact file on Ecuador’s energy choices
- Ecuador's mountainous terrain and rivers allow for hydropower generation, however this does not work in dry weather conditions.
- During dry weather conditions, Ecuador relies on oil-fired plants for power generation.
- Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) is subsidized by the government and is commonly used in household cooking and heating water.
- A new programme seeks to change the energy source for residential kitchens from LPG to more efficient electric induction cookers.
*Each wedge represents billions in USD
Figure 9(c): Cloud forest tree adaptation for water condensation and absorption
Trees in the Mindo cloud forest have several adaptations that are crucial for their survival. These adaptations include:
- Fog drip utilization: this is when water droplets in fog condense on the leaves and drip to the forest floor. This increases the water content in the soil at the base of the tree.
- Leaf structure: leaves are often smaller and thicker, reducing water loss from transpiration. The leaves are also able to absorb water directly via a process called foliar uptake, more efficiently than trees outside of the cloud forest.
- Tree crowns: the crown or top of the tree disrupts wind driven cloud moisture forming fog drip.
There is no cure and those infected experience 85–100% mortality.
With reference to the information in the resource booklet, discuss to what extent Ecuador has been effective at meeting its legal obligation to conserve nature (Pachamama).
Evaluate the policies or legislation or actions that exist locally, nationally and internationally that address this issue.
Figure:Atmospheric sources and processes related to acid deposition
Figure 2 shows some of the sources and processes that lead to acid deposition.
Discuss why acid deposition has been controlled mainly by regional agreements rather than by global agreements.
The hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica, discovered in the 1980s, was caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The Montreal Protocol requires the use of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) or hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) instead of CFCs (Figure 3). However, these two gases are also linked to environmental problems (Figure 4).
Figure 3:Comparison of the effects of CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs
Figure 4:HCFCs and HFCs cause less damage than CFCs but still affect the environment
Identify one advantage of staggered dates for the phasing out of HFCs for countries at different levels of economic development.
Identify one disadvantage of staggered dates for the phasing out of HFCs for countries at different levels of economic development.
| Taxonomic group | Total species | Endemic species |
|---|---|---|
| Plants | 25560 | 5348 |
| Vertebrates | 2794 | 436 |
| Mammals | 362 | 30 |
| Birds | 1616 | 52 |
| Reptiles | 394 | 114 |
| Amphibians | 422 | 240 |
Figure:Species diversity among different taxonomic groups in Ecuador in 2020
Figure A:Map of the SOTE pipeline and proposed OCP pipeline routes
Figure:Timeline for the OCP oil pipeline
Figure A:Mechanism of chytrid fungus infection in Mindo amphibians
Figure:Protected corridor proposal to connect Mindo cloud forest with other Ecuadorian reserves
Ecuador covers approximately 284000 km2 and has a human population of about 18.3 million. Quito is the capital and one of five UNESCO World Heritage sites in the country. In 2008, Ecuador was the first country in the world to recognize the constitutional legal rights of nature, also referred to as Pachamama. Ecuador is one of the richest areas of biodiversity in the world, with many endemic and endangered species. Tourism provides income worth more than 5% of GDP; the Ministry of Tourism aims to reach 2 million visitors by 2025 by attracting travellers who want to interact with nature.
The northern OCP pipeline route was completed in 2003. The proposed southern OCP route was rejected in favour of the northern route. The SOTE pipeline was completed in 1972. The map also shows protected nature areas. SOTE is operated by the government and OCP is run privately; both coexist today and are fully functional.
Only one third of Ecuador’s identified cloud forest sites are protected. The Mindo-Nambillo cloud forest reserve forms part of several protected areas across Ecuador. The Mindo cloud forest covers 268 km2 and is home to several indigenous subgroups of the Quichua people. The village of Mindo is west of the reserve and is known for chocolate made from locally grown cacao. Organizations work with local farmers to find alternatives to cattle ranching and with indigenous groups to develop more sustainable agricultural practices, reducing habitat destruction.
The Mindo harlequin toad is endemic to the Mindo cloud forest. It was considered extinct until five specimens were found in 2019 and is currently classified as critically endangered. This toad and other amphibians are threatened by chytrid fungal disease, habitat degradation, pesticide pollution and invasive species. North American rainbow trout, introduced for sport fishing and aquaculture, feed on the tadpoles of the Mindo harlequin toad and other amphibians. Chytrid fungal disease is thought to have originated in East Asia and spread through the exotic pet trade.
Chytrid fungus causes chytridiomycosis and has been linked to the decline and extinction of over 200 amphibian species worldwide. It infects amphibian skin, preventing oxygen absorption, temperature regulation and mineral balance. There is no cure and infected individuals experience 85-100% mortality.
With reference to the information in the resource booklet, discuss to what extent Ecuador has been effective at meeting its legal obligation to conserve nature (Pachamama).