IB ESS HL HL.a.5 Environmental constitutionalism

[Maximum number: 6]

Figure:Map showing the location of Ecuador

Figure:Ecosystems of Ecuador

Figure:Ecological footprint (per person) and biocapacity (1965-2020)

Figure:Map of the SOTE pipeline and proposed OCP pipeline routes

Figure:Timeline for the OCP oil pipeline

Figure:Ecuador's energy consumption by source (1965-2023)

Figure:Ecuador's main exports by value (billions of USD) for 2022

Figure:Topographic map and percentage cloud frequency map of Ecuador

Figure:Relationship of cloud forest with hydrological cycle

Figure:Fact file on Mindo cloud forest

Figure:Fact file on Mindo harlequin toad

Figure:Protected corridor proposal to connect Mindo cloud forest with other Ecuadorian reserves

Biocapacity is the amount of biological productive land, measured in hectares per person.

\footnotetext{
* Endemic species refers to those species only found in a given region
}

Key:
- The existing OCP pipeline northern route that was completed in 2003
(OCP = Oleoducto de Crudos Pesados)
- The proposed OCP southern route that was rejected in favour of the northern route
- The SOTE pipeline that was completed in 1972
(SOTE = Sistema del Oleoducto Transecuatoriano)
□ Protected nature area

SOTE is operated by the government and OCP is run privately. Both coexist today and are fully functional.

Figure: Fact file on Ecuador’s energy choices: Fact file on Ecuador's energy choices
- Ecuador's mountainous terrain and rivers allow for hydropower generation, however this does not work in dry weather conditions.
- During dry weather conditions, Ecuador relies on oil-fired plants for power generation.
- Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) is subsidized by the government and is commonly used in household cooking and heating water.
- A new programme seeks to change the energy source for residential kitchens from LPG to more efficient electric induction cookers.

*Each wedge represents billions in USD

Figure: Cloud forest tree adaptation for water condensation and absorption

Trees in the Mindo cloud forest have several adaptations that are crucial for their survival. These adaptations include:
- Fog drip utilization: this is when water droplets in fog condense on the leaves and drip to the forest floor. This increases the water content in the soil at the base of the tree.
- Leaf structure: leaves are often smaller and thicker, reducing water loss from transpiration. The leaves are also able to absorb water directly via a process called foliar uptake, more efficiently than trees outside of the cloud forest.
- Tree crowns: the crown or top of the tree disrupts wind driven cloud moisture forming fog drip.

red and falls off.

There is no cure and those infected experience $\mathbf{8 5 - 1 0 0} \boldsymbol{\%}$ mortality.

With reference to the information in the resource booklet, discuss to what extent Ecuador has been effective at meeting its legal obligation to conserve nature (Pachamama).

Ecuador has been effective [4 max]:
a. Significant areas (one third) of the cloud forest are legally protected / there are several protected areas in Ecuador;
b. Development of wildlife corridor will link protected areas/allow safe migration of animals/increase access to habitat/increase genetic mixing;
c. Organizations are working with local communities/indigenous groups/farmers to reduce damage to habitats from farming (e.g. from cattle grazing/growing cacao);
d. More organizations are cooperating internationally/combining resources to protect vulnerable species like the Mindo harlequin toad;
e. Ecuadorians have voted against oil development/production in/near Figure: National Parks which would protect habitats;
f. Oil companies are required to restore areas/create new forests;
g. Ecotourism to Ecuador raises income/educates people which supports conservation efforts;

Ecuador has not been effective [4 max]:
h. The OCP/oil pipeline was built, damaging large areas of habitats/ecosystems/protected areas / Oil pipeline has had several accidents/leaks that destroyed/damaged habitats/contaminated ecosystems;
i. Ecuador still relies on non-renewable sources/fossil fuels which can damage ecosystems/habitats during their extraction;
j. Ecuador is highly dependent on oil/fossil fuels which release GHGs which contribute to climate change/extreme weather, which in turn damages habitats/kills wildlife;
k. Development of hydropower can lead to loss of habitats/species;
I. Many of Ecuador's species are still endangered (according to IUCN Red List);
m. Invasive species continue to be a threat to endemic species;
n. Use of pesticides results in a loss of biodiversity/degradation of ecosystems;
o. Development of cacao plantations/cattle ranching/agriculture may result in deforestation/loss of biodiversity;
p. Biocapacity continues to fall suggesting lack of conservation;
q. High level of export/catches of shrimp/crabs may lead to over-exploitation of natural resources;
r. Only one third of cloud forest are protected/two thirds of cloud forest are not protected which could lead to their over-exploitation;
s. The southern phase of the corridor has still not been created/protected areas are still not all connected, limiting nature conservation (e.g. by limiting genetic diversity of species);
t. Large numbers of tourists can disturb/damage wildlife/habitats/ecosystems (e.g. high levels of trampling causing vegetation loss / tourists disturbing wildlife during mating season);

Marking guidance:

Award [5 max] for both strengths and weaknesses.
Conclusion [1 max]
For example:
While Ecuador has been working to improve agricultural practices and protect habitats, they have not met their legal obligation to conserve nature as shown by frequent oil pipeline spills and invasive species threatening endemic wildlife.

Note to examiners: A valid conclusion should be credited if it is explicit, balanced (addresses both sides of the argument) supported by evidence and makes a clear value judgement. Do not credit the conclusion if only one side of the argument has been considered in the overall response.

Accept other reasonable responses supported by the information in the resource booklet.
Do not credit Ecuador is rich in biodiversity/has high number of endemic species.
Do not credit that Ecuadoran constitution recognizes the rights of nature/they were the first to recognize the legal rights of nature.

IB ESS HL HL.a.5 Environmental constitutionalism Question Bank

Exam points

HL.a.5—Environmental constitutionalism question 1