IB ESS SL 1.3 Sustainability Questions

Practise IB ESS SL 1.3 by comparing ecological footprint with biocapacity and evaluating environmental, social and economic evidence for sustainability.

Exam points

Explain and evaluate sustainability by connecting environmental, social and economic pillars with sustainable development, future generations and evidence-based trade-offs.
Calculate or interpret ecological footprint and biocapacity data, including per-capita reserve or deficit, to judge present and future sustainability.
Interpret named quantitative indicators and trends across local, national or global scales to reach a balanced sustainability judgement.
Evaluate resource-use and development strategies by weighing renewal, regeneration, efficiency, technology, imports or exports, environmental effects and social or economic benefits.
Explain and evaluate environmental justice by comparing unequal pollution or resource burdens and deciding whether local or global action best fits the issue, using case evidence.
Evaluate the usefulness and limitations of ecological-footprint and other indicator models for communicating impacts and informing sustainability decisions.

Covered syllabus points

1.3.1—Sustainability definition 1.3.2—Three pillars of sustainability 1.3.3—Environmental sustainability 1.3.4—Social sustainability 1.3.5—Economic sustainability 1.3.6—Sustainable development 1.3.7—Ecosystem collapse 1.3.8—GDP limitations 1.3.9—Environmental justice 1.3.10—Inequality and resource access 1.3.11—Scales of sustainability and justice 1.3.12—Sustainability indicators 1.3.13—Ecological footprints 1.3.14—Carbon and water footprints 1.3.15—Biocapacity 1.3.16—Citizen science 1.3.17—Sustainability frameworks 1.3.18—UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)1.3.19—Planetary boundaries model 1.3.20—Doughnut economics model 1.3.21—Circular economy model

[Maximum number: 2]

Figure:Human activity on and near Inle Lake

Figure:Agriculture of Inle Lake fact file

- Most people living here are self-sufficient farmers and fishermen.
- Houses are built of wood and bamboo on stilts in the lake.
- Inle carp are a staple food; rice is grown on surrounding hillsides.
- Lotus plants provide fibres for weaving; floating gardens use weed from the lake bottom and grow fruits and vegetables such as tomatoes and cauliflowers.
- Floating gardens rise and fall with water levels and use nutrients from the lake.

Using evidence from the figures showing human activity on and near Inle Lake and the agriculture fact file, explain why the people of Inle Lake have lived sustainably until recently.

[Maximum number: 6]

Figure A:Examples of ecosystems in London

Figure B:Examples of ecosystems in London

Figure:Green spaces in London

Figure:Population of deer in Richmond Park, 2013–2017

Figure:Number of deer removed from Richmond Park, 2013–2017

	London	United Kingdom	World average
Ecological footprint (global hectares per capita)	4.5	4.6	2.8
Biocapacity (global hectares per capita)	0.17	1.20	1.60

Table:Ecological footprints of London, the United Kingdom and the world, 2015

Figure:Underground vertical farm

Figure:Rooftop beekeeping

Figure:Annual mean NOx concentrations in London air, 2016

Figure:Recycling rates in London and England, 2000–2015

Material	Proportion recycled / \%
Plastic	10
Paper	57
Aluminium cans	33
Steel cans	45
Glass	51

Table:Proportions of material recycled in London, 2006

Figure:Fact file on London

• The largest city in England.
• London generates 22 % of the United Kingdom’s economy.
• Population of 8.9 million (2019).
• Natural increase rate was 1.13 % per year (2011–2019).
• 37 % of London’s population are immigrants.
• Electricity is generated in power stations outside London.
• London aims to supply 15 % of its energy by local, renewable sources by 2030.

Figure:Fact file on London as a green city

• 47 % of London is classified as green space.
• 33 % is natural habitat in public open spaces.
• 14 % is private domestic gardens.
• 2 % is rivers, canals and reservoirs.
• It has over 8 million trees.
• It has two national nature reserves, three Special Areas of Conservation, 144 local nature reserves and 1602 Sites of Importance for Nature Conservation.
• Residential areas near a green space have higher economic value.

Figure:Fact file on Richmond Park

• Richmond Park is a national nature reserve and Special Area of Conservation.
• Approximately 630 red and fallow deer live permanently in the park.
• There are no natural predators for deer in Richmond Park.
• Deer numbers in the park are managed to maintain a sustainable population.
• Deer meat is sold and any profits are reinvested into caring for the deer.

Figure:Urban agriculture in London

• Approximately 9 % of London’s land area is used for agriculture.
• Most commercial farms are on the edges of London, in the “green belt”.
• There is increasing interest in urban agriculture, such as vertical farming and rooftop gardening, including beekeeping.

Vertical farms:
• Vertical farms exist underground and inside empty industrial buildings.
• They produce vegetables such as salad leaves, lettuce, spinach and herbs.
• Compared to traditional UK agriculture, vertical farms use up to 70 % less water and no pesticides.

Urban beekeeping:
• There are over 1000 beekeepers in London.
• There is a higher density of bees in London than in rural areas of the UK.
• London’s bees have more diverse food sources and are healthier than rural bees.
• An 11 km “bee corridor” of wildflowers has been created in north London.

To what extent is London a sustainable city? Refer to the information provided in the resource booklet in your answer.

Sustainable [4 max]:
i. recycling of SDW will reduce CO₂ from decomposition, reducing EF;
ii. recycling of SDW will reduce space required for landfill, reducing EF;
iii. vertical farming increases biocapacity / repurposing brownfield sites/empty industrial buildings means land does not need to be cleared for agriculture (increasing sustainability)/increases productive land area;
iv. urban agriculture reduces importation of food which reduces carbon dioxide emissions from transportation;
v. no pesticides means a reduction in toxification of soil/water, increasing sustainability;
vi. bee-keeping helps protect/raise healthy bees which are needed for biodiversity of plants;
vii. reduction in water use for vertical farming increases sustainability;
viii. air pollution control measures will reduce negative impact on human health and vegetation;
ix. large amount of green space/habitat for biodiversity;
x. aiming to produce 15 % of energy from renewable, local sources, which increases sustainability/reduces EF;
xi. deer are managed to ensure environment remains healthy;
xii. money raised from selling deer meat goes to conservation increasing sustainability/protection of habitat;
xiii. there are over 8 million trees/ 47 % is classified as green space, providing oxygen/ acting as a carbon sink/trees clean air of pollutants, which increases sustainability;

Not sustainable [4 max]:
xiv. EF is larger than biocapacity, which means it is not sustainable;
xv. recycling requires energy and produces air pollution, which increases EF;
xvi. low recycling rates (compared to rest of UK)/lower than 35 %, so not sustainable / only paper and glass have more than 50% recycled;
xvii. growth in population will increase demand for land (housing) and energy, so improvements may be counteracted by increased population;
xviii. green spaces are fragmented / green spaces are divided by urban barriers, so wildlife cannot move freely between habitats;
xix. central London suffers from high levels of air pollution, which is not sustainable;
xx. deer numbers rise rapidly and then crash, suggesting numbers are exceeding carrying capacity, which is not sustainable/habitat is being damaged;
xxi. only aiming for 15 % energy from renewables, which isn't using resources wisely;

Conclusion [1 max]: While many aspects of the urban management of London contribute to its sustainability such as use of vertical farming that helps to conserve water, the vast population in a relatively small area means that its environmental footprint far exceeds the area of the city.

Do not credit 'EF of London is greater than world average EF'. A valid conclusion should be credited if it is explicit, balanced (addresses both sides of the argument), supported by evidence and makes a clear value judgement. Do not credit the conclusion if only one side of the argument has been considered within the overall response.
Award [5 max] for both sustainable and non-sustainable reasons.

[Maximum number: 6]

Year	Percentage of forest cover
1940	$76 \%$
1962	54\%
1987	22\%
1998	43\%
2010	53\%

Table:Variation in forest cover in Costa Rica between 1940 and 2010

Figure 8(a): Economic activity (GDP) in Costa Rica by sector

Figure:Economic activity (GDP) in Costa Rica by sector

Figure 8(b): Land used in Costa Rica for pineapple production between 1961 and 2013

Figure:Land used in Costa Rica for pineapple production between 1961 and 2013

Figure 8(d): Growth in international tourism in Costa Rica (1988-2016)

Figure:Growth in international tourism in Costa Rica (1988-2016)

Figure 9(a): Electricity generation in Costa Rica by energy source (1990-2016)

Figure:Electricity generation in Costa Rica by energy source (1990-2016)

Figure 9(b): Total energy consumption in Costa Rica (including electricity) between 1990 and 2016

Figure:Total energy consumption in Costa Rica (including electricity) between 1990 and 2016

Figure 9(c): Consumption of crude oil in Costa Rica by sector (2016)

Figure:Consumption of crude oil in Costa Rica by sector (2016)

Figure 10(b): Ecological footprint and biocapacity per person in Costa Rica (1961-2016)

Figure:Ecological footprint and biocapacity per person in Costa Rica (1961-2016)

- Costa Rica pledged to become carbon neutral by balancing carbon dioxide output with carbon dioxide input.
- Since the mid-1980s, national methane emissions have decreased and a twenty-year ban was placed on oil exploration in 2002.
- Government encourages public transport, lower-emission vehicles, electric/biofuel/hybrid/hydrogen vehicles, renewable electricity and carbon offset schemes.
- The world's first certified carbon-neutral coffee producer was established in Costa Rica.
- For 2017, carbon dioxide emissions per person (1.45 tonnes) were above the regional average for Central America (1.18 tonnes).

forest policy
- PES pays landowners to plant trees in deforested areas and manage land sustainably.
- In 1996, deforestation of mature forest was banned.
- The goal is to achieve 60% forest coverage.

With reference to the information in the resource booklet, to what extent has Costa Rica's aim to become carbon neutral led to a more environmentally-sustainable nation?

Evidence for:
(i) carbon off-setting has increased afforestation/reforestation/tree planting / forestation has increased carbon sinks / forestation has contributed to mitigating climate change/reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide levels;
(ii) afforestation/reforestation/increase in protected area has increased biodiversity/natural habitat for wildlife;
(iii) afforestation/reforestation has increased natural capital/goods and services;
(iv) most electricity comes from renewable sources of energy rather than non-renewable sources (can be used up / exhaustible) / most electricity comes from renewable sources rather than fossil fuels hence produces less carbon dioxide emissions/has a lower EF;
(v) use of electric/hybrid/biofuel/hydrogen vehicles limits carbon dioxide emissions / increase use of renewables/electric transport could improve air quality in urban areas;
(vi) use of public transport limits individual car use and reduces overall carbon dioxide emissions/could improve urban air quality/has a lower EF;
(vii) certified carbon neutral coffee farming may mitigate impacts of intensive (cash crops) agriculture / certified carbon neutral coffee farming may support businesses which have a smaller carbon footprint;

Evidence against:
(viii) there are emissions of other greenhouse gases from farming (eg methane from cattle/beef production / nitrous oxide from using fertilizers or manure);
(ix) increase in land area used for intensive agriculture (pineapples) reduces biodiversity;
(x) there is high use of fossil fuel / transport sector depends on fossil fuels / the transportation of importing fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide;
(xi) ecological footprint (EF) is beyond the carrying capacity / EF is greater than biocapacity;
(xii) despite increased forestation the biocapacity has continued to decline which is not sustainable / biocapacity still appears to be declining which is not sustainable;
(xiii) large tourism numbers may cause damage to the environment eg roads may fragment habitats / building development for tourism may lead to habitat destruction;
(xiv) tourists that travel to Costa Rica can produce high levels of greenhouse gases/carbon dioxide emissions through plane travel;
(xv) growth in agriculture leads to deforestation / there is still some loss of mature forest to agriculture / difficult to enforce ban on deforestation;
(xvi) in future, the country will eventually run out of space for carbon off-setting by planting trees and therefore this is not a sustainable practice;
(xvii) hydropower has a detrimental effect on the environment eg blocks migratory routes for fish, causes siltation behind the dam wall and reduces flow of nutrients/sediments downstream contributing to coastal erosion/lower diversity;
(xviii) (despite carbon zero policy/efforts to reduce $\mathrm{CO}_{2}$ levels) the levels of $\mathrm{CO}_{2}$ emissions for Costa Rica are above the regional average;

Conclusion/opinion:
For example: Although Costa Rica produces most of its electricity from renewable sources, non-renewable resources are still used eg oil which is a finite resource and is not sustainable for the future;
Despite reducing loss of forest/increasing sinks for carbon, the biocapacity continues to decline and hence overall Costa Rica is not sustainable; While Costa Rica still has some issues relating to emissions of GHGs through agriculture/transport, it is moving in the right direction towards environmental sustainability with its tree planting campaigns/increase in protected areas and cleaner air due to renewable energy sources;

Award up to [4] for evidence for and up to [4] for evidence against; [5] maximum across both sides. Award up to [1] for a supported conclusion.
Do not credit only 'PES results in more tree planting'.
A valid conclusion should be credited if it is explicit, balanced (addresses both sides of the argument) and supported by evidence. Do not credit the conclusion if only one side of the argument has been considered within the overall response.
Accept other reasonable responses supported by the information in the resource booklet.

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Covered syllabus points

Question 1

Question 2

Question 3