What you’ll learn5 learning objectivesChoose one objective for a focused lesson, or study the complete topic.—M.6—Probability, sampling and chanceRelate genetic ratios to probabilities; understand sampling in biological situations and data; explain the importance of chance and probability when interpreting biological evidence.Syllabus objective—M.7—Hardy-Weinberg, Lincoln index and Simpson diversityUse Hardy-Weinberg equations for allele and genotype frequencies; use the Lincoln index to estimate population size from mark-release-recapture data; calculate Simpson’s index of diversity.Syllabus objective—M.8—Distributions, descriptive statistics and error barsDistinguish normal and non-normal distributions; use mean, median, mode, range, standard deviation, standard error and 95% confidence intervals; calculate sample standard deviation, standard error and 95% confidence intervals when formulae are provided; plot error bars using standard deviation, standard error or confidence intervals.Syllabus objective—M.9—Chi-squared test and t-testCalculate chi-squared and t-test results using provided formulae; calculate degrees of freedom without being given formulae; use critical values and probability tables to judge significance; connect statistical decisions to biological conclusions.Syllabus objective—M.10—Correlation, causation, Pearson and SpearmanExplain the difference between correlation and causation; use Pearson’s linear correlation and Spearman’s rank correlation; understand correlation coefficients from -1 to +1; choose appropriate statistical tests and state conditions for their valid use.Syllabus objective