What you’ll learn11 learning objectivesChoose one objective for a focused lesson, or study the complete topic.14.1.1Homeostasis definition and importance• Homeostasis definition and importanceSyllabus objective14.1.2Homeostasis control principles• Principles: internal/external stimuli, receptors, coordination systems (nervous/endocrine), effectors (muscles/glands), negative feedbackSyllabus objective14.1.3Urea production• Urea produced in liver from deamination of excess amino acidsSyllabus objective14.1.4Kidney gross structure• Kidney structure: fibrous capsule, cortex, medulla, renal pelvis, ureter, branches of renal artery/veinSyllabus objective14.1.5Nephron structure• Nephron parts: glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting ductSyllabus objective14.1.6Urine formation• Urine formation:- Glomerular filtrate by ultrafiltration in Bowman's capsule- Selective reabsorption in proximal convoluted tubuleSyllabus objective14.1.7Nephron structure and function• Relate Bowman's capsule and proximal convoluted tubule structure to functionSyllabus objective14.1.8Osmoregulation with ADH• Osmoregulation: roles of hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, ADH, aquaporins, collecting ductsSyllabus objective14.1.9Glucagon cell signalling• Cell signalling example - glucagon control of blood glucose:- Hormone binding to receptor causes conformational change- G-protein activation stimulates adenylyl cyclase- Second messenger cAMP formation- Protein kinase A activation by cAMP initiates enzyme cascade- Signal amplification through enzyme cascade by phosphorylation- Cellular response: final enzyme activates glycogen breakdownSyllabus objective14.1.10Negative feedback control of blood glucose• Negative feedback control of blood glucose:- Insulin effects on muscle and liver cells- Glucagon effects on liver cellsSyllabus objective14.1.11Glucose test strips and biosensors• Test strips and biosensors for glucose measurement: glucose oxidase and peroxidase enzymesSyllabus objective