IB Economics HL Unit 1 Introduction to Economics Questions

Read the extracts and answer the questions that follow.

Text D - Overview of Bhutan

(1) Bhutan is a lower-middle income country in southern Asia. It is mountainous, water is plentiful, and 60 % of the territory is protected forest. Since 2008, Bhutan has measured its economic development by changes in its "Gross National Happiness" (GNH) index. The index considers factors such as income inequality, environmental conservation, sustainable development, and gender equality, in addition to the components of the Human Development Index (HDI).

(2) The pursuit of GNH has involved using government programmes to spread the benefits of economic growth across all social groups. An example of this is the construction of large hydropower plants, not only for the export of electricity but also to ensure that remote communities can buy power at low prices. Hydropower is a renewable method of producing electricity using the natural flow of water. With these new plants, all rural and urban areas had access to electricity by 2019.

(3) Government intervention in the market for electricity has been necessary due to the high cost of resources. Both the production and distribution of electricity are therefore controlled by state
owned enterprises. Bhutan's government has relied on India for grants and loans to finance hydropower projects.

(4) Sales of surplus electricity to India, amounting to over 70 % of electricity generation in 2021, have increased the funds available to the government for investment in healthcare and education. These revenues have also helped to finance the expansion of essential infrastructure, particularly road networks. The government's aim has been to reduce poverty and to improve well-being, especially in rural areas.

(5) Hydropower has proved to be an important source of economic development. However, the private sector faces a lack of investment for multiple reasons, including high transport costs and a small domestic market. This has limited the creation of new private-sector jobs. Furthermore, a sustainability tax of 100 USA dollars (USD) per night for tourists helps with Bhutan's conservation efforts. The tax reduces Bhutan's competitiveness as a tourist destination.

(6) Agriculture is vital to Bhutan's largely rural population. This sector employed 55 % of the workforce in 2021. However, most agricultural produce, such as rice, is consumed by farming households rather than sold in the market. By 2021, the country was importing about 50 % of its food. The growing food demands of urban areas could have negative consequences for the balance of payments.

(7) Agricultural output is constrained by many factors, including a lack of machinery, irrigation and affordable credit. Bhutan's partnership with the United Nations International Fund for Agricultural Development has provided funds for investment in the agricultural sector, such as irrigation systems, roads connecting farms to markets, and storage facilities. However, the GNH emphasis on sustainability could restrict growth in this sector. For example, to preserve biodiversity, there are restrictions on the use of chemical fertilizers.

Text E - Youth unemployment in Bhutan*

(1) The youth unemployment rate for Bhutan in 2021 was 20.9 %. However, youth unemployment in towns was much higher than in rural areas. Approximately 60 % of the total unemployed youth were female.

(2) There is a mismatch between the needs of employers and the skills of young people. Apart from this problem, the private sector requires government assistance in creating job opportunities so that young people can find employment outside of the public sector. Moreover, a lack of finance discourages the youth from entrepreneurship, further reducing their work prospects and the growth of Bhutan's economy.

Text F - Bhutan's trade relations with India
Bhutan has a free trade agreement with India, removing all tariffs between the two countries. In 2021-2022, about 80 % of Bhutan's international trade was with India. India's top imports from Bhutan include electricity, metals, and cement. Bhutan relies on India for goods such as fuel, cars, and rice. Transactions between the two countries are straightforward, as the central bank of Bhutan ensures the ngultrum (Bhutan's currency, BTN) is fixed to the rupee (India's currency, INR) at the exchange rate of 1 BTN=1 INR.
* aged between 15 and 24

Define the term entrepreneurship indicated in bold in the text (Text E, paragraph 2).

Read the extracts and answer the questions that follow.
Text A - Overview of Tanzania

(1) Tanzania is one of Africa's fastest growing economies with an average of 7 % annual economic growth since 2000. It is a politically stable country, rich in wildlife and natural resources. However, the growth has been concentrated in urban manufacturing, using capital intensive production. The benefits from this growth have not reached all people and significant inequalities exist between urban and rural areas. Although the relative poverty rate has fallen over the last 15 years, the number of people living in absolute poverty has increased.

(2) Most people are employed in the slow-growing agricultural sector that relies on unskilled labour. Although incomes increased from 2008 to 2018, the demand for agricultural goods only increased by 21 % during this time period. Over 70 % of Tanzania's population lives in rural areas, relying on subsistence farming with limited tradable crops. Only 30 % of land is being used for agricultural production. With investment, the remaining unused land could be developed and generate income for farmers.

(3) The rural sector struggles to meet Tanzania's food requirements due to low levels of skilled labour and productivity. Additionally, high youth unemployment leads to large numbers of unskilled rural youth migrating to the cities, often finding employment in the informal sector where wages and working conditions are poor. Insufficient investment and lack of government support for diversifying the agriculture sector have been blamed for the persistent inequalities and poverty.

(4) Tanzania's cities have experienced a growing middle class with strong purchasing power and political influence who have placed demands on the government for cheaper electricity, better infrastructure, and more imported goods. In response, the government provided subsidies for electricity in city centres and tax benefits to foreign companies operating in Tanzania. There is concern that these measures may worsen inequality and lead to social unrest.

(5) The growth of Tanzania's manufacturing and service sector was funded through aid and large government borrowing, resulting in high national debt. Most of the government borrowing was from foreign sources and in US dollars (US$), which is a concern due to a recent depreciation of the Tanzanian shilling (Tanzania's currency) against the US$. Some of the debt was borrowed domestically and placed upward pressure on interest rates. Higher interest rates have resulted in crowding out but helped keep inflation under control.
Text B - Strategies and opportunities for Tanzania

(1) Previous governments have used interventionist supply-side policies to improve access to water, education, and health services. However, the health service improvements are not keeping up with population growth and many young people are still not completing secondary school. Infrastructure has improved, but it is still insufficient as producers in the rural sector find it difficult to reach markets and access supplies.

(2) Aid organizations are currently supporting new sustainable businesses in rural areas through training programmes, especially for women and young people, who make up most of the unemployed in rural areas. Economists have advised the government to improve access to credit through microfinance organizations and to simplify regulations to make it easier to start new businesses.

(3) The government is establishing property rights in rural areas to provide security for farmers. Historically, farmers could easily lose their land, which reduced their incentive to invest in productive farming methods. The government wants to develop Tanzania's land resources and lower its reliance on imported food. To reduce food imports, a subsidy will be granted to dairy farmers to allow them to compete against imported dairy products.

(4) Tanzania is a member of the East African Community (EAC) customs union and common market. However, Tanzania needs to improve human capital and encourage diversification so that the benefits of regional integration can reach the poor. These policies can also help attract foreign direct investment (FDI). Opportunities for growth through trade will expand as the EAC works towards becoming a monetary union in 2024.
Text C - Oil pipeline to be constructed
Tanzania and Uganda plan to construct a major oil pipeline from Uganda through Tanzania, ending at a port in Tanzania. This will attract FDI which could help fund infrastructure and generate jobs. However, environmentalists are concerned about potential ecological damage due to the waste created during the construction of the pipeline. Economists have suggested the waste could be avoided through a circular economy approach in the planning and construction stage.

* Estimate

Define the term circular economy indicated in bold (Text C).

Read the extracts and answer the questions that follow.
Text D - Overview of Bhutan

(1) Bhutan is a lower-middle income country in southern Asia. It is mountainous, water is plentiful, and 60 % of the territory is protected forest. Since 2008, Bhutan has measured its economic development by changes in its "Gross National Happiness" (GNH) index. The index considers factors such as income inequality, environmental conservation, sustainable development and gender equality, in addition to the components of the Human Development Index (HDI).

(2) The pursuit of GNH has involved using government programmes to spread the benefits of economic growth across all social groups. An example of this is the construction of large hydropower plants, not only for the export of electricity but also to ensure that remote communities can buy power at low prices. Hydropower is a renewable method of producing electricity using the natural flow of water. With these new plants, all rural and urban areas had access to electricity by 2019.

(3) Government intervention in the market for electricity has been necessary due to the high cost of resources. Both the production and distribution of electricity are therefore controlled by state-owned enterprises. Bhutan's government has relied on India for grants and loans to finance hydropower projects.

(4) Sales of surplus electricity to India, amounting to over 70 % of electricity generation in 2021, have increased the funds available to the government for investment in healthcare and education. These revenues have also helped to finance the expansion of essential infrastructure, particularly road networks. The government's aim has been to reduce poverty and to improve well-being, especially in rural areas.

(5) Hydropower has proved to be an important source of economic development. However, the private sector faces a lack of investment for multiple reasons, including high transport costs and a small domestic market. This has limited the creation of new private sector jobs. Furthermore, a sustainability tax of 100 USA dollars (USD) per night for tourists helps with Bhutan's conservation efforts. The tax reduces Bhutan's competitiveness as a tourist destination.

(6) Agriculture is vital to Bhutan's largely rural population. This sector employed 55 % of the workforce in 2021. However, most agricultural produce, such as rice, is consumed by farming households rather than sold in the market. By 2021, the country was importing about 50 % of its food. The growing food demands of urban areas could have negative consequences for the balance of payments.

(7) Agricultural output is constrained by many factors, including a lack of machinery, irrigation and affordable credit. Bhutan's partnership with the United Nations International Fund for Agricultural Development has provided funds for investment in the agricultural sector, such as irrigation systems, roads connecting farms to markets, and storage facilities. However, the GNH emphasis on sustainability could restrict growth in this sector. For example, to preserve biodiversity there are restrictions on the use of chemical fertilizers.
Text E - Youth unemployment in Bhutan*

(1) The youth unemployment rate for Bhutan in 2021 was 20.9 %. However, youth unemployment in towns was much higher than in rural areas. Approximately 60 % of the total unemployed youth were female.

(2) There is a mismatch between the needs of employers and the skills of young people. Apart from this problem, the private sector requires government assistance in creating job opportunities so that young people can find employment outside of the public sector. Moreover, a lack of finance discourages the youth from entrepreneurship, further reducing their work prospects and the growth of Bhutan's economy.
Text F - Bhutan's trade relations with India
Bhutan has a free trade agreement with India, removing all tariffs between the two countries. In 2021-2022, about 80 % of Bhutan's international trade was with India. India's top imports from Bhutan include electricity, metals, and cement. Bhutan relies on India for goods such as fuel, cars, and rice. Transactions between the two countries are straightforward, as the central bank of Bhutan ensures the ngultrum (Bhutan's currency, BTN) is fixed to the rupee (India's currency, INR) at the exchange rate of 1 BTN=1 INR.
* aged between 15 and 24

Define the term private sector indicated in bold in the text (Text D, paragraph 5).

Text B - Argentina's new economic reforms

Read the extracts and answer the questions that follow.
Text A - The economy of Argentina

(1) Argentina, the third-largest economy in Latin America, has experienced several cycles of high economic growth and deep recessions over the last 70 years. It has vast natural resources in energy and agriculture and potential for renewable energy. Its leading exports include soybeans and beef products, which contribute significantly to gross domestic product (GDP) and employment and are major sources of foreign currency. However, Argentina faces unfavourable climate conditions that create problems for the agriculture sector. A drought in 2023 caused over 20 billion United States dollars (USD) in losses for soybean farmers.

(2) Argentina faces high relative poverty rates despite redistribution policies such as transfer payments. Argentina is known for extensive government intervention, including price ceilings on rent and strong protection for labour unions and workers.

(3) For many years, Argentina managed its exchange rate by limiting the amount of foreign currency that citizens could purchase as well as by restricting imports. The aim was to protect reserve assets and prevent currency depreciation. This led to the establishment of an informal (unofficial) foreign exchange market and discouraged foreign direct investment (FDI). However, the foreign currency limitations resulted in an overvalued currency and failed to stop the level of reserve assets from decreasing.

(4) In 2018, Argentina requested a loan from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to help fund its budget deficit and large external debt repayments. However, Argentina defaulted on its debt repayments to the IMF, which led to low consumer and business confidence, causing large FDI and portfolio investment outflows. To receive future loans, the IMF requires Argentina to promote good governance, reduce government spending, increase reserve assets and control inflation.

(5) In 2022, Argentina's economic challenges continued with high inflation and a persistent budget deficit, leading to unsustainable debt. High inflation has led to declining real wages. Moreover, uncertainty about future prices has contributed to lower business investment.
Text B - Argentina's new economic reforms

(1) In December 2023, Argentina's new government initiated reforms to help solve its economic challenges. The new economic reforms included:
- deregulating markets, such as removing price controls and restrictions on buying foreign currency
- privatization of 41 state-owned enterprises to improve efficiency, including the national airline, rail networks, state media, and major oil, water and sewage companies
- increasing labour market flexibility by reducing labour union power and lowering labour costs
- reducing government spending by cancelling infrastructure projects, reducing the size of the public sector and eliminating transport and energy subsidies.

(2) The immediate result of removing restrictions on foreign currency purchases was a large depreciation of the Argentine peso (ARS), Argentina's currency, as predicted by speculators. Moreover, inflation increased to over 250 %. The new government maintained that while the reforms may cause a short-term recession, the policies would ultimately lead to long-term price stability and economic growth, despite predictions that relative poverty rates could increase to 60 %. However, the government has stated it will continue spending on programmes to decrease poverty.

(3) To address the budget deficit and maintain a trade surplus, the government increased taxes on cigarettes and imposed tariffs on imports such as laptops. Income taxes were increased, but the level of income on which no income tax is paid was raised from ARS 1.35 million to ARS 1.55 million per month.

(4) The IMF supported the reforms and agreed to grant future loans to Argentina. The loans are important to establish international credibility and finance government spending.

Text C - Education and productivity in Argentina
Despite significant investments in education, achievement levels are not improving. Experts recommend that Argentina focus on improving the quality of education to decrease poverty rates and increase the economy's productive capacity. Additionally, Argentina's low female labour force participation rate indicates an underutilized resource. An improved education system could increase female participation in the economy and raise household incomes.

Using a production possibilities curve (PPC) diagram, explain how following the experts' recommendation about education may impact Argentina's production possibilities (Text C).