Course review
Review each learning objective in this topic, then open its concept explanation or question set.
Learning objective
• Homeostasis maintains a stable internal environment within narrow limits • Variables include body temperature, blood pH, glucose, gases, ions, and osmotic concentration
Start with the concept explanation, then practise to create mastery evidence.
Learning objective
• Negative feedback detects deviation from a set point and reverses it • Receptors, coordinators, effectors, and feedback loops restore normal conditions
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Learning objective
• Beta cells secrete insulin when blood glucose rises • Alpha cells secrete glucagon when blood glucose falls, affecting liver and muscle stores
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Learning objective
• Type 1 diabetes results from autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells • Type 2 diabetes involves insulin-receptor/response failure and is linked to lifestyle risk factors
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Learning objective
• Thermoregulation uses negative feedback to maintain core temperature near 37 °C • Thermoreceptors signal the hypothalamus, which coordinates skin, muscles, liver, and hormones
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Learning objective
• Cooling uses vasodilation, sweating, and hairs lying flat • Warming uses vasoconstriction, reduced sweating, shivering, metabolic heat, and brown fat
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Learning objective
• Kidneys regulate blood composition by excretion and osmoregulation • Nephrons remove urea and adjust water and ion concentrations in urine
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Learning objective
• Glomerular blood pressure drives ultrafiltration into Bowman's capsule • The proximal convoluted tubule selectively reabsorbs glucose, amino acids, ions, and water
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Learning objective
• Ascending limb pumps Na⁺/Cl⁻ and is impermeable to water • Descending limb loses water, creating a medulla gradient for water conservation
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Learning objective
• Hypothalamus osmoreceptors control posterior pituitary ADH release • ADH inserts aquaporins in collecting ducts, increasing water reabsorption and concentrated urine
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Learning objective
• Vasoconstriction and vasodilation redistribute blood according to activity • Exercise and epinephrine increase skeletal muscle flow and reduce gut or renal flow
Start with the concept explanation, then practise to create mastery evidence.