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2.2 Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, and Decision Making

Syllabus
2025
Topic
2.2
Level
—

Learning objectives

2.2A—Explain how psychological concepts and theories account for thinking, problem-solving, judgment, and…Explain how psychological concepts and theories account for thinking, problem-solving, judgment, and decision-making. UNIT 2 Cognition• Concepts form the basis of thought. Prototypes are the ideal example for any given concept.• People form and modify schemas, or frameworks for thinking, through assimilation (taking in new information but not changing the schema in light of it) and accommodation (taking in new information and changing the schema to incorporate the new information).• Algorithms address problems by attempting all possible solutions until the correct one is found.• Heuristics address problems by using mental shortcuts to make judgments. Using heuristics can lead to errors in judgment when decisions are made according to prior expectations or stereotypes (representativeness heuristic) or recalling the first or most vivid example that comes to mind (availability heuristic).• Decision making can be influenced by prior experiences that were successful (mental set) or circumstances surrounding a decision (priming and framing).• Cognitive processes such as gambler’s fallacy and sunk-cost fallacy can hinder people from making good decisions.• Executive functions are cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking.• Creativity is a way of thinking that includes generating novel ideas and engaging in divergent (versus convergent) thinking. Creative thinking is hindered by functional fixedness.

How Thinking Solves—and Creates—Problems

Mental structure/process Function
Concept Category that forms a basis for thought
Prototype Ideal example used to represent a concept
Schema Framework for organizing thought
Assimilation Fit new information into an existing schema without changing it
Accommodation Change a schema so it incorporates new information
Problem-solving strategy Benefit Risk or limit
Algorithm Attempts all possible solutions until the correct one is found Can require more time or effort
Heuristic Uses a mental shortcut for a faster judgment Can produce systematic errors
Representativeness heuristic Judges by prior expectations or stereotypes Similarity may outweigh relevant evidence
Availability heuristic Uses the first or most vivid example recalled Ease of recall may be mistaken for likelihood
Influence How judgment can shift
Mental set Reuse a previously successful approach even when another may fit better
Priming Surrounding or prior exposure changes what comes readily to mind
Framing Different presentation of the same choice changes a decision
Gambler’s fallacy Misjudge later outcomes based on earlier random outcomes
Sunk-cost fallacy Continue because resources were already spent rather than because the next choice is best

Executive functions generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behavior and support critical thinking. Creativity generates novel ideas and uses divergent thinking to produce multiple possibilities, unlike convergent thinking toward one answer. Functional fixedness hinders creativity when an object or idea is considered only in its usual role.

A heuristic is not automatically irrational and an algorithm is not automatically better: heuristics trade completeness for efficiency. The AP task is to explain the mechanism and identify when it can bias a judgment.