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2.3 Introduction to Memory

Syllabus
2025
Topic
2.3
Level
—

Learning objectives

2.3A—Explain how the types, structures, and processes of memory work. UNIT 2 CognitionExplain how the types, structures, and processes of memory work. UNIT 2 Cognition• Memories for learned knowledge, events, and experiences are differentiated by how they are processed by, stored in, and retrieved by the brain.- i. Explicit memory is a type of memory that is more easily described or explained to others. Types of explicit memory include episodic and semantic.- ii. Implicit memory is more challenging to describe or explain to others. Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory for procedures and processes.- iii. Prospective memory is a type of memory related to future actions.• Long-term potentiation, a process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation, is a biological process for memory.• The working memory model examines how our primary memory system—working memory— engages in a dynamic interaction with several components, namely the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad, to process information into long-term memory.• The multi-store model proposes three interacting systems (sensory memory [including iconic and echoic memory], short-term memory, and long-term memory) that information must pass through to be remembered. This model focuses on the impact of automatic and effortful processing on memory encoding, storage, and retrieval.• The levels of processing model proposes that memory is encoded on three levels from shallowest to deepest: structural, phonemic, and semantic.

Memory Has Types, Systems, and Depth

Memory type What distinguishes it Included form or use
Explicit Easier to describe or explain consciously Episodic memory for events; semantic memory for learned knowledge
Implicit More difficult to describe or explain consciously Procedural memory for procedures and processes
Prospective Oriented toward remembering a future action Carrying out an intended action later

Long-term potentiation provides a biological process for memory: frequent activation strengthens synaptic connections between neurons. This gives repeated neural activity a lasting effect that can support later memory processing.

Model Main claim Key components
Working-memory model Active processing dynamically coordinates information toward long-term memory Central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad
Multi-store model Information passes through interacting stores to be remembered Sensory memory (iconic and echoic), short-term memory, long-term memory; automatic and effortful processing affect encoding, storage, and retrieval
Levels-of-processing model Encoding depth affects memory Structural → phonemic → semantic, from shallowest to deepest

A remembered life event is episodic explicit memory; remembered factual knowledge is semantic explicit memory; knowing how to perform a practiced procedure is procedural implicit memory; remembering to complete a future task is prospective memory. These labels classify content, while the three models explain processing structure or encoding depth.

Do not treat working memory and short-term memory as interchangeable labels in every model. Working memory emphasizes active, component-based processing; the multi-store model emphasizes movement among stores.