3.1 AS Level content - core studies

Main assumptions of the biological approach.

• Behaviour, cognitions and emotions can be explained in terms of the working of the brain and the effect of hormones, genetics and evolution.
• Similarities and differences between people can be understood in terms of biological factors and their interaction with other factors.

This matters because biological approach - main assumptions determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply biological approach - main assumptions to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Biological approach - main assumptions is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams).

• Dement, W and Kleitman, N (1957), The relation of eye movements during sleep to dream activity: An objective method for the study of dreaming. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 53(5): 339-46.
• The study by Dement and Kleitman investigated the relationship between rapid eye movements (REM) and dreaming. It included EEGs, REM and Non-REM sleep, used experimental and correlational methods and an interview technique.
• The psychology being investigated includes: sleep; dreaming; ultradian rhythms.
• For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

This matters because dement and kleitman (sleep and dreams) determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply dement and kleitman (sleep and dreams) to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences).

• Hassett, J M, Siebert, E R and Wallen, K (2008), Sex differences in rhesus monkey toy preferences parallel those of children. Hormones and Behaviour, 54(3): 359-64.
• The study by Hassett et al. was an experiment investigating sex differences for toy preferences in monkeys, whose behaviour is assumed to be more biologically controlled than that of children. Interactions with stereotypical boys' toys and girls' toys were observed and coded using a behavioural checklist. Human participants were not included in the sample of this study. To compare monkey toy preferences to those of children, data from another study was used.
• The psychology being investigated includes: sex differences; socialisation; play; the role of hormones.
• For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

This matters because hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences) determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences) to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences) is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans).

• Hölzel, B K, Carmody, J, Vangel, M, Congleton, C, Yerramsetti, S M, Gard, T and Lazar, S W (2011), Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density. Psychiatry Research, 191(1): 36-43.
• The study by Hölzel et al. investigated the effects of mindfulness practice on brain structure in an experiment using a longitudinal design. The techniques used included MRI scans and self-reports. The study also used correlations.
• The psychology being investigated includes: mindfulness; localisation of function.
• For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

This matters because hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Main assumptions of the cognitive approach.

• Information is processed through the same route in all humans: input - process - output, in a similar way to how information is processed by a computer.
• People have individual differences in their cognitive processing such as with attention, language, thinking and memory. These processes can also help to explain behaviour and emotion.

This matters because cognitive approach - main assumptions determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply cognitive approach - main assumptions to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Cognitive approach - main assumptions is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Andrade (doodling).

• Andrade, J (2010), What does doodling do? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(1): 100-6.
• The study by Andrade explored the idea that doodling can assist a person's concentration and memory. This was investigated in a laboratory experiment.
• The psychology being investigated includes: attention; memory.
• For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

This matters because andrade (doodling) determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply andrade (doodling) to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Andrade (doodling) is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test).

• Baron-Cohen, S, Wheelwright, S, Hill, J, Raste, Y and Plumb, I (2001), The 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes' Test revised version: a study with normal adults, and adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(2): 241-51.
• The study by Baron-Cohen et al. investigated theory of mind in adults including those with Asperger syndrome or autism. The study aimed to improve the original 1997 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes' Test, a questionnaire that was completed online. The research methods used in this study included experiments and correlations.
• The psychology being investigated includes: theory of mind; social sensitivity.
• For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

This matters because baron-cohen et al. (eyes test) determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply baron-cohen et al. (eyes test) to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Pozzulo et al. (line-ups).

• Pozzulo, J D, Dempsey, J, Bruer, K and Sheahan, C (2011), The Culprit in Target-Absent Lineups: Understanding Young Children's False Positive Responding. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 27(1): 55-62.
• The study by Pozzulo et al. investigated factors affecting memory for target faces in a line-up, as used in identification of a criminal by an eyewitness. This was tested using the faces of cartoon characters and humans. The laboratory experiment also made comparisons between adults and children and used interviews and questionnaires as techniques.
• The psychology being investigated includes: false positive responses; eyewitness testimony.
• For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

This matters because pozzulo et al. (line-ups) determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply pozzulo et al. (line-ups) to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Pozzulo et al. (line-ups) is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Main assumptions of the learning approach.

• We all begin life as a blank slate. Experiences and interactions with the environment shape our behaviour and these changes are directly observable.
• We learn through the processes of operant conditioning, classical conditioning and social learning. This can be understood using the stimulus-response model.

This matters because learning approach - main assumptions determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply learning approach - main assumptions to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Learning approach - main assumptions is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Bandura et al. (aggression).

• Bandura, A, Ross, D and Ross, S A (1961), Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3): 575-82.
• The study by Bandura et al. tested social learning theory. The study investigated whether a child would imitate aggressive behaviour if they witnessed such behaviour in an adult. The study was an experiment comparing several variables using observation as a technique to collect data.
• The psychology being investigated includes: social learning theory; aggression.
• For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

This matters because bandura et al. (aggression) determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply bandura et al. (aggression) to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Bandura et al. (aggression) is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Fagen et al. (elephant learning).

• Fagen, A, Acharya, N and Kaufman, G E (2014), Positive Reinforcement Training for a Trunk Wash in Nepal's Working Elephants: Demonstrating Alternatives to Traditional Elephant Training Techniques. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 17(2): 83-97.
• The study by Fagen et al. investigated the use of positive reinforcement training for trunk washing in a group of working elephants to improve captive management and welfare. Secondary reinforcement training was used to train the elephants to perform specific behaviours. The research method was an observation with success measured using a behavioural checklist.
• The psychology being investigated includes: operant conditioning; reinforcement (positive, negative, primary and secondary); shaping; behavioural chaining.
• For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

This matters because fagen et al. (elephant learning) determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply fagen et al. (elephant learning) to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Fagen et al. (elephant learning) is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia).

• Saavedra, L M and Silverman, W K (2002), Case study: disgust and a specific phobia of buttons. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(11): 1376-79 Saavedra and Silverman studied a child with button phobia. They investigated how classical conditioning can be used to treat a child's phobia by targeting disgust and fear responses. The case study research method was used with interviews, various scales and observations as techniques.
• The psychology being investigated includes: evaluative learning; operant conditioning; classical conditioning; phobias.
• For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

This matters because saavedra and silverman (button phobia) determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply saavedra and silverman (button phobia) to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Main assumptions of the social approach.

• Behaviour, cognitions and emotions are influenced by social contexts, social environments and groups.
• Behaviour, cognitions and emotions are influenced by the actual, implied or imagined presence of others.

This matters because social approach - main assumptions determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply social approach - main assumptions to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Social approach - main assumptions is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Milgram (obedience).

• Milgram, S (1963), Behavioral Study of Obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(4): 371-78.
• The study by Milgram investigated the conflict between obedience to authority and personal conscience and how far a person would go in obeying an instruction if it meant harming another person. This includes considering dispositional and situational hypotheses. A laboratory setting was used to measure obedience, described as a 'dependent variable' but there was no independent variable in the main study. The study used observations and an interview as techniques.
• Please Note: Milgram conducted many variations on this study. This study did not provide the 'teacher' with voice-feedback from the 'victim'.
• The psychology being investigated includes: obedience; social pressure.

This matters because milgram (obedience) determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply milgram (obedience) to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Milgram (obedience) is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Perry et al. (personal space).

• Perry, A, Mankuta, D and Shamay-Tsoory, S G (2015), OT promotes closer interpersonal distance among highly empathic individuals. Social, Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 10(1): 3-9.
• The study by Perry et al. investigated personal space (interpersonal distance). They tested how empathy and oxytocin affected the perception of personal space using a placebo to compare to oxytocin. Two experiments used different techniques to measure interpersonal distance and questionnaires were also used. Experiment 1 used a computerised version of the Comfortable Interpersonal Distance Scale. In Experiment 2, participants chose between pictures of different rooms.
• The psychology being investigated includes: interpersonal distance (personal space); social hormones; empathy.
• For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

This matters because perry et al. (personal space) determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply perry et al. (personal space) to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Perry et al. (personal space) is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans).

• Piliavin, I M, Rodin, J and Piliavin, J A (1969), Good Samaritanism: An Underground Phenomenon? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13(4): 289-99.
• The study by Piliavin et al. tested bystander apathy. The study investigated how bystanders behave in real life situations and the factors that can affect their desire to help. This includes considering diffusion of responsibility. The study was a field experiment and used observations as a technique.
• The psychology being investigated includes: bystander apathy; diffusion of responsibility.
• For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

This matters because piliavin et al. (subway samaritans) determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply piliavin et al. (subway samaritans) to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Consider how each core study, where appropriate, can be applied to everyday life.

Use application of psychology to everyday life to connect the rule to the data and decision in the question.

This matters because application of psychology to everyday life determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply application of psychology to everyday life to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Application of psychology to everyday life is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Consider individual and situational explanations in relation to each core study, where appropriate.

Use individual and situational explanations to connect the rule to the data and decision in the question.

This matters because individual and situational explanations determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply individual and situational explanations to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Individual and situational explanations is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Consider the nature versus nurture debate in relation to each core study, where appropriate.

Use nature versus nurture to connect the rule to the data and decision in the question.

This matters because nature versus nurture determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply nature versus nurture to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Nature versus nurture is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Consider the use of children in psychological research in relation to each core study, where appropriate.

Use use of children in psychological research to connect the rule to the data and decision in the question.

This matters because use of children in psychological research determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply use of children in psychological research to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Use of children in psychological research is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Consider the use of animals in psychological research in relation to each core study, where appropriate.

Use use of animals in psychological research to connect the rule to the data and decision in the question.

This matters because use of animals in psychological research determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply use of animals in psychological research to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Use of animals in psychological research is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.