Specialist Option 3: Health Psychology
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Health Psychology overview and key studies
Health Psychology overview
• Specialist Option 3: Health Psychology - Health psychologists look at the factors that influence behaviours in both health and community settings. For this option, candidates will look at psychological factors that influence health, and will also examine the management and assessment of health-related behaviours linked to stress, pain and non-adherence to medical advice. Candidates should have the opportunity to explore the different issues and debates relevant to the psychological theories and concepts and the research methods used to investigate health-related behaviour. For all topics and studies, candidates should be able to: - describe, evaluate and compare the psychological theories, research, approaches, explanations and treatments/therapies. - describe and evaluate research methods and methodological concepts (for AS and A Level) - consider how the topic area relates to psychological issues and debates (for AS and A Level) - apply the findings of the study and topic area to the real world. After each topic there is a list of issues and debates and research methodology which are most relevant to the topic. This list is not exhaustive and teachers may use other relevant issues and methodology in their teaching.
Health Psychology key studies
• Key studies for Health Psychology - Savage, R and Armstrong, D (1990), Effect of a general practitioner's consulting style on patients' satisfaction: a - controlled study. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 301(6758): 968-70 - Yokley, J M and Glenwick, D S (1984), Increasing the immunization of preschool children; an evaluation of - applied community interventions. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 17(3): 313-25 - Brudvik, C, Moutte, S D, Baste, V and Morken, T (2017), A comparison of pain assessment by physicians, - parents and children in an outpatient setting. Emergency Medicine Journal, 34(3): 138-44 - Bridge, L R, Benson, P, Pietroni, P C and Priest, R G (1988), Relaxation and imagery in the treatment of breast - cancer. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 297: 1169-72 - Shoshani, A and Steinmetz, S (2014), Positive Psychology at School: A School-Based Intervention to Promote - Adolescents' Mental Health and Well-Being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15(6): 1289-1311
Health Psychology key-study requirements
• For each key study, candidates should know, understand and evaluate - the context of the study and relationship to other studies - the main theories/explanations included in the study - the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated] - the design of the study, including all methodology as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used, sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling technique [if known], procedure, technique for data collection - the results, findings and conclusions of the study - the main discussion points of the study. - describe and evaluate research methods used in and methodological concepts included in the study (for AS and A Level) - describe and evaluate the psychological issues and debates (for AS and A Level) included in the study.
3.1 The patient-practitioner relationship
3.1.1Practitioner interpersonal skills
• 3.1.1 Practitioner interpersonal skills - non-verbal communications with a focus on practitioner clothing, including a study, e.g. McKinstry and Wang (1991). - verbal communications with a focus on understanding medical terminology, including a study, e.g. McKinlay (1975). - Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: idiographic versus nomothetic, experiments, questionnaires, quantitative data, generalisations.
3.1.2Practitioner diagnosis and style
• 3.1.2 Practitioner diagnosis and style - practitioner diagnosis focusing on making a diagnosis (disclosure of information, false positive and false negative diagnosis) and presenting a diagnosis. - practitioner style: doctor-centred (directed) and patient-centred (sharing) consultation (exemplified by the following key study). - Key study for the effect of practitioner style on patient satisfaction: Savage and Armstrong (1990). - Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, individual and situational explanations, cultural differences, determinism versus free-will, validity.
3.1.3Misusing health services
• 3.1.3 Misusing health services - delay in seeking treatment: - - reasons for delay, including a study, e.g. Safer et al. (1979) - - alternative explanations for delay, e.g. the health belief model - Munchausen syndrome versus malingering. Diagnostic features of Munchausen (essential and supporting features), including a study, e.g. Aleem and Ajarim (1995). - Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: reductionism versus holism, idiographic versus nomothetic, interviews, case study, generalisations.
3.2 Adherence to medical advice
3.2.1Non-adherence types and reasons
• 3.2.1 Types of non-adherence and reasons why patients do not adhere - types of non-adherence (failure to follow treatments and failure to attend appointments) and problems caused by non-adherence. - explanations of why patients do not adhere: - - rational non-adherence, including a study, e.g. Laba et al. (2012) - - Health Belief Model. - Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, individual and situational explanations, reductionism versus holism, idiographic versus nomothetic, generalisations.
3.2.2Measuring non-adherence
• 3.2.2 Measuring non-adherence - subjective measures including clinical interviews and semi-structured interviews, including a study, e.g. Riekert and Drotar (1999). - objective measures focusing on pill counting and medication dispensers, including a study, e.g. Chung and Naya (2000). - biological measures including blood and urine samples. - Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, idiographic versus nomothetic, quantitative and qualitative data, validity, reliability.
3.2.3Improving adherence
• 3.2.3 Improving adherence - improving adherence in children including a study, e.g. Chaney et al. (2004). - individual behavioural techniques: contracts, prompts, customising treatment. - community interventions (exemplified by the following key study). - Key study on improving medical adherence using community interventions: Yokley and Glenwick (1984). - Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: use of children in research, experiments, questionnaires, generalisations, validity.
3.3 Pain
3.3.1Types and theories of pain
• 3.3.1 Types and theories of pain - functions of pain; types of pain: acute and chronic pain. Focus on phantom limb pain and mirror treatment to include a case study, e.g. MacLachlan et al. (2004). - theories of pain: specificity theory, gate control theory. - Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations, nature versus nurture, reductionism versus holism, determinism versus free-will, case study.
3.3.2Measuring pain
• 3.3.2 Measuring pain - subjective measures including clinical interview. - psychometric measures and visual rating scales: - - McGill pain questionnaire - - visual analogue scale (exemplified by the following key study). Key Study on comparing pain assessments by doctors, parents and children: Brudvik et al. (2016). - behavioural/observational measures: UAB pain behaviour scale. - Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: idiographic versus nomothetic, quantitative and qualitative data, interviews, observations, psychometrics, generalisations.
3.3.3Managing and controlling pain
• 3.3.3 Managing and controlling pain - biological treatment: biochemical. - psychological treatments: cognitive strategies (attention diversion, non-pain imagery and cognitive redefinition). - alternative treatments: acupuncture; stimulation therapy/TENS. - Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, cultural differences, reductionism versus holism, determinism versus free-will, idiographic versus nomothetic, objective and subjective data.
3.4 Stress
3.4.1Sources of stress
• 3.4.1 Sources of stress - physiology of stress: the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) and the effects of stress on health. - causes of stress: - - Holmes and Rahe's life events - - work including a study, e.g. Chandola et al. (2008) - - Friedman and Rosenman's Type A personality. - Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations, reductionism versus holism, determinism versus free-will, idiographic versus nomothetic, generalisations.
3.4.2Measures of stress
• 3.4.2 Measures of stress - biological measures: - - recording devices for heart rate and brain function (fMRI), including a study, e.g. Wang et al. (2005) - - sample tests for salivary cortisol, including a study, e.g. Evans and Wener (2007). - psychological measures: self-report questionnaires, including tests of Friedman and Rosenman's Type A personality and Holmes and Rahe's life events questionnaire. - Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: questionnaires, psychometrics, subjective and objective data, validity, reliability.
3.4.3Preventing and managing stress
• 3.4.3 Preventing and managing stress - psychological therapy: biofeedback, including a study, e.g. Budzynski and Stoyva. (1969). - use of imagery to reduce stress (exemplified by the following key study). - Key study on relaxation and imagery in reducing stress during medical treatment: Bridge et al. (1988). - preventing stress: three phases of stress inoculation training. - Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, individual and situational explanations, determinism versus free-will, generalisations, ethics.
3.5 Health promotion
3.5.1Strategies for improving health
• 3.5.1 Strategies for improving health - fear arousal: use of fear to improve health, including a study, e.g. Janis and Feshbach (1953). - providing information: giving information so people know how to improve their health, including a study, e.g. Lewin et al. (1992). - Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations, cultural differences, longitudinal studies, objective and subjective data, ethics.
3.5.2Health promotion in schools and worksites
• 3.5.2 Health promotion in schools and worksites - schools, with a focus on healthy eating, including a study, e.g. Tapper et al. (2003). - worksites, with a focus on health and safety, including a study, e.g. Fox et al. (1987). - Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: use of children in research, experiments, longitudinal studies, quantitative and qualitative data, generalisations.
3.5.3Changing health beliefs
• 3.5.3 Individual factors in changing health beliefs - unrealistic optimism: reason for disregarding positive health advice, including a study, e.g. Weinstein (1980). - positive psychology: defining positive psychology. Three focuses: pleasant life, good life, meaningful life, including a study, e.g. Seligman (2004). - application of positive psychology (exemplified by the following key study). - Key study on using positive psychology in schools to improve mental health: Shoshani and Steinmetz (2014). - Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations, cultural differences, idiographic versus nomothetic, psychometrics, generalisations.