Specialist Option 3: Health Psychology

Specialist Option 3: Health Psychology.

• Health psychologists look at the factors that influence behaviours in both health and community settings. For this option, candidates will look at psychological factors that influence health, and will also examine the management and assessment of health-related behaviours linked to stress, pain and non-adherence to medical advice. Candidates should have the opportunity to explore the different issues and debates relevant to the psychological theories and concepts and the research methods used to investigate health-related behaviour. For all topics and studies, candidates should be able to:.
• describe, evaluate and compare the psychological theories, research, approaches, explanations and treatments/therapies.
• describe and evaluate research methods and methodological concepts (for AS and A Level).
• consider how the topic area relates to psychological issues and debates (for AS and A Level).

This matters because health psychology overview determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply health psychology overview to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Health Psychology overview is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

Key studies for Health Psychology.

• Savage, R and Armstrong, D (1990), Effect of a general practitioner's consulting style on patients' satisfaction: a.
• controlled study. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 301(6758): 968-70.
• Yokley, J M and Glenwick, D S (1984), Increasing the immunization of preschool children; an evaluation of.
• applied community interventions. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 17(3): 313-25.

This matters because health psychology key studies determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply health psychology key studies to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Health Psychology key studies is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

For each key study, candidates should know, understand and evaluate.

• the context of the study and relationship to other studies.
• the main theories/explanations included in the study.
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated].
• the design of the study, including all methodology as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used, sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling technique [if known], procedure, technique for data collection.

This matters because health psychology key-study requirements determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply health psychology key-study requirements to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: Health Psychology key-study requirements is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

3.1.1 Practitioner interpersonal skills.

• non-verbal communications with a focus on practitioner clothing, including a study, e.g. McKinstry and Wang (1991).
• verbal communications with a focus on understanding medical terminology, including a study, e.g. McKinlay (1975).
• Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: idiographic versus nomothetic, experiments, questionnaires, quantitative data, generalisations.

This matters because —practitioner interpersonal skills determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply —practitioner interpersonal skills to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: —Practitioner interpersonal skills is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

3.1.2 Practitioner diagnosis and style.

• practitioner diagnosis focusing on making a diagnosis (disclosure of information, false positive and false negative diagnosis) and presenting a diagnosis.
• practitioner style: doctor-centred (directed) and patient-centred (sharing) consultation (exemplified by the following key study).
• Key study for the effect of practitioner style on patient satisfaction: Savage and Armstrong (1990).
• Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, individual and situational explanations, cultural differences, determinism versus free-will, validity.

This matters because —practitioner diagnosis and style determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply —practitioner diagnosis and style to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: —Practitioner diagnosis and style is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

3.1.3 Misusing health services.

• delay in seeking treatment:.
• reasons for delay, including a study, e.g. Safer et al. (1979).
• alternative explanations for delay, e.g. the health belief model.
• Munchausen syndrome versus malingering. Diagnostic features of Munchausen (essential and supporting features), including a study, e.g. Aleem and Ajarim (1995).

This matters because —misusing health services determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply —misusing health services to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: —Misusing health services is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

3.2.1 Types of non-adherence and reasons why patients do not adhere.

• types of non-adherence (failure to follow treatments and failure to attend appointments) and problems caused by non-adherence.
• explanations of why patients do not adhere:.
• rational non-adherence, including a study, e.g. Laba et al. (2012).
• Health Belief Model.

This matters because —non-adherence types and reasons determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply —non-adherence types and reasons to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: —Non-adherence types and reasons is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

3.2.2 Measuring non-adherence.

• subjective measures including clinical interviews and semi-structured interviews, including a study, e.g. Riekert and Drotar (1999).
• objective measures focusing on pill counting and medication dispensers, including a study, e.g. Chung and Naya (2000).
• biological measures including blood and urine samples.
• Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, idiographic versus nomothetic, quantitative and qualitative data, validity, reliability.

This matters because —measuring non-adherence determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply —measuring non-adherence to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: —Measuring non-adherence is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

3.2.3 Improving adherence.

• improving adherence in children including a study, e.g. Chaney et al. (2004).
• individual behavioural techniques: contracts, prompts, customising treatment.
• community interventions (exemplified by the following key study).
• Key study on improving medical adherence using community interventions: Yokley and Glenwick (1984).

This matters because —improving adherence determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply —improving adherence to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: —Improving adherence is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

3.3.1 Types and theories of pain.

• functions of pain; types of pain: acute and chronic pain. Focus on phantom limb pain and mirror treatment to include a case study, e.g. MacLachlan et al. (2004).
• theories of pain: specificity theory, gate control theory.
• Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations, nature versus nurture, reductionism versus holism, determinism versus free-will, case study.

This matters because —types and theories of pain determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply —types and theories of pain to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: —Types and theories of pain is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

3.3.2 Measuring pain.

• subjective measures including clinical interview.
• psychometric measures and visual rating scales:.
• McGill pain questionnaire.
• visual analogue scale (exemplified by the following key study). Key Study on comparing pain assessments by doctors, parents and children: Brudvik et al. (2016).

This matters because —measuring pain determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply —measuring pain to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: —Measuring pain is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

3.3.3 Managing and controlling pain.

• biological treatment: biochemical.
• psychological treatments: cognitive strategies (attention diversion, non-pain imagery and cognitive redefinition).
• alternative treatments: acupuncture; stimulation therapy/TENS.
• Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, cultural differences, reductionism versus holism, determinism versus free-will, idiographic versus nomothetic, objective and subjective data.

This matters because —managing and controlling pain determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply —managing and controlling pain to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: —Managing and controlling pain is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

3.4.1 Sources of stress.

• physiology of stress: the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) and the effects of stress on health.
• causes of stress:.
• Holmes and Rahe's life events.
• work including a study, e.g. Chandola et al. (2008).

This matters because —sources of stress determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply —sources of stress to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: —Sources of stress is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

3.4.2 Measures of stress.

• biological measures:.
• recording devices for heart rate and brain function (fMRI), including a study, e.g. Wang et al. (2005).
• sample tests for salivary cortisol, including a study, e.g. Evans and Wener (2007).
• psychological measures: self-report questionnaires, including tests of Friedman and Rosenman's Type A personality and Holmes and Rahe's life events questionnaire.

This matters because —measures of stress determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply —measures of stress to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: —Measures of stress is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

3.4.3 Preventing and managing stress.

• psychological therapy: biofeedback, including a study, e.g. Budzynski and Stoyva. (1969).
• use of imagery to reduce stress (exemplified by the following key study).
• Key study on relaxation and imagery in reducing stress during medical treatment: Bridge et al. (1988).
• preventing stress: three phases of stress inoculation training.

This matters because —preventing and managing stress determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply —preventing and managing stress to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: —Preventing and managing stress is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

3.5.1 Strategies for improving health.

• fear arousal: use of fear to improve health, including a study, e.g. Janis and Feshbach (1953).
• providing information: giving information so people know how to improve their health, including a study, e.g. Lewin et al. (1992).
• Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations, cultural differences, longitudinal studies, objective and subjective data, ethics.

This matters because —strategies for improving health determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply —strategies for improving health to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: —Strategies for improving health is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

3.5.2 Health promotion in schools and worksites.

• schools, with a focus on healthy eating, including a study, e.g. Tapper et al. (2003).
• worksites, with a focus on health and safety, including a study, e.g. Fox et al. (1987).
• Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: use of children in research, experiments, longitudinal studies, quantitative and qualitative data, generalisations.

This matters because —health promotion in schools and worksites determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply —health promotion in schools and worksites to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: —Health promotion in schools and worksites is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.

3.5.3 Individual factors in changing health beliefs.

• unrealistic optimism: reason for disregarding positive health advice, including a study, e.g. Weinstein (1980).
• positive psychology: defining positive psychology. Three focuses: pleasant life, good life, meaningful life, including a study, e.g. Seligman (2004).
• application of positive psychology (exemplified by the following key study).
• Key study on using positive psychology in schools to improve mental health: Shoshani and Steinmetz (2014).

This matters because —changing health beliefs determines what can be inferred or chosen; begin with the stated conditions and keep the conclusion tied to the evidence.

Example: apply —changing health beliefs to one small, clearly defined case, show the key step or comparison, and explain the result in words.

Boundary: —Changing health beliefs is not a universal recommendation. Check the syllabus scope, assumptions, units and the limits of the evidence before generalising.