E. Nuclear and quantum physics
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E.1 Structure of the atom
E.1.1—Rutherford experiment
• Geiger-Marsden-Rutherford experiment and the discovery of the nucleus.
E.1.2—Nuclear notation
• Use nuclear notation: A = nucleon number, Z = proton number, X = element symbol.
E.1.3—Atomic energy levels
• Emission and absorption spectra provide evidence for discrete atomic energy levels.
E.1.4—Atomic transitions
• Photons are emitted/absorbed during transitions between atomic energy levels.
E.1.5—Photon energy
• Photon energy in atomic transition: E=hf.
E.1.6—Spectra and composition
• Use emission and absorption spectra to infer chemical composition.
E.1.7 (HL)—Nuclear radius
• Nuclear radius scales with nucleon number: R=R0 A^(1/3); implies near-constant density. • Relationship implies approximately constant nuclear density.
E.1.8 (HL)—High-energy scattering deviations
• Deviations from Rutherford scattering at high energies.
E.1.9 (HL)—Closest approach
• Use energy conservation for distance of closest approach in head-on scattering.
E.1.10 (HL)—Bohr hydrogen levels
• Bohr hydrogen energy levels: E=-13.6/n^2 eV.
E.1.11 (HL)—Bohr angular momentum
• Bohr quantization: angular momentum mvr = nh/(2π).
E.2 Quantum physics
E.2.1 (HL)—Photoelectric effect
• Photoelectric effect is evidence for particle nature of light.
E.2.2 (HL)—Threshold frequency
• Photoelectrons require photons above threshold frequency.
E.2.3 (HL)—Photoelectric equation
• Photoelectric equation: Emax = hf - Φ.
E.2.4 (HL)—Particle diffraction
• Particle diffraction is evidence for wave nature of matter.
E.2.5 (HL)—Matter wave-particle duality
• Matter exhibits wave-particle duality.
E.2.6 (HL)—de Broglie wavelength
• de Broglie wavelength: λ=h/p.
E.2.7 (HL)—Compton scattering
• Compton scattering is evidence for particle nature of light.
E.2.8 (HL)—Photon wavelength increase
• Scattered photons have increased wavelength.
E.2.9 (HL)—Compton wavelength shift
• Compton shift: Δλ = h/(mec)(1-cosθ).
E.3 Radioactive decay
E.3.1—Isotopes
• Isotopes.
E.3.2—Binding energy and mass defect
• Nuclear binding energy and mass defect. • Mass defect connects nuclear mass loss with binding energy.
E.3.3—Binding energy curve
• Use binding energy per nucleon variation with nucleon number.
E.3.4—Mass-energy equivalence
• Mass-energy equivalence in nuclear reactions: E=mc^2.
E.3.5—Strong nuclear force
• Strong nuclear force is short-range and attractive between nucleons.
E.3.6—Random radioactive decay
• Radioactive decay is random and spontaneous.
E.3.7—Decay nuclear changes
• Alpha, beta and gamma decays change nuclear state differently.
E.3.8—Decay equations
• Write radioactive decay equations for α, β-, β+ and γ.
E.3.9—Neutrinos and antineutrinos
• Existence of neutrinos ν and antineutrinos ν. • Neutrinos and antineutrinos are required in beta decay.
E.3.10—Radiation penetration and ionization
• Compare penetration and ionizing ability of α, β and γ radiation.
E.3.11—Activity, count rate and half-life
• Activity, count rate and half-life in radioactive decay.
E.3.12—Half-life changes
• Use integer half-lives to track activity and count rate changes.
E.3.13—Background radiation
• Effect of background radiation on count rate. • Correct count rate for background radiation.
E.3.14 (HL)—Evidence for strong force
• Evidence supports the strong nuclear force.
E.3.15 (HL)—Neutron-proton ratio
• Neutron-to-proton ratio affects nuclide stability.
E.3.16 (HL)—Binding energy above A≈60
• Binding energy per nucleon is approximately constant above A≈60.
E.3.17 (HL)—Discrete nuclear energy levels
• Alpha and gamma spectra show discrete nuclear energy levels.
E.3.18 (HL)—Beta spectrum and neutrino
• Continuous beta spectrum is evidence for the neutrino.
E.3.19 (HL)—Radioactive decay law
• Radioactive decay law: N=N0e^(-λt).
E.3.20 (HL)—Decay constant meaning
• Decay constant approximates unit-time decay probability when λt is very small.
E.3.21 (HL)—Activity equation
• Activity is decay rate: A=λN=λN0e^(-λt).
E.3.22 (HL)—Half-life and decay constant
• Half-life relation: T1/2 = ln2/λ.
E.4 Fission
E.4.1—Fission energy release
• Energy is released in spontaneous and neutron-induced fission.
E.4.2—Chain reactions
• Chain reactions sustain nuclear fission.
E.4.3—Nuclear power plant roles
• Know control rods, moderators, heat exchangers and shielding in nuclear power plants. • Control rods, moderators, heat exchangers and shielding each have distinct roles.
E.4.4—Fission products and waste
• Know fission products and nuclear waste management issues. • Include properties and management of fission products.
E.5 Fusion and stars
E.5.1—Stellar equilibrium
• Stars are stable when outward radiation pressure balances inward gravity.
E.5.2—Fusion in stars
• Fusion is a source of energy in stars.
E.5.3—Fusion conditions
• Fusion in stars requires high density and temperature.
E.5.4—Stellar mass and evolution
• Stellar mass determines star evolution pathway.
E.5.5—HR diagram regions
• Use HR diagram regions to describe star properties. • Include main sequence, red giants/supergiants, white dwarfs and lines of constant radius.
E.5.6—Stellar parallax
• Stellar parallax distance: d(pc)=1/p(arcsec).
E.5.7—Stellar radii
• Determine stellar radius from luminosity and surface temperature.