5.4 Selection of Categories of Psychological Disorders
- Syllabus
- 2025
- Topic
- 5.4
- Level
- —
Learning objectives
5.4A—Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected neurodevelopmental disordersDescribe the symptoms and possible causes of selected neurodevelopmental disorders.• Neurodevelopmental disorders are a group of disorders with onset occurring during the developmental period. Symptoms of neurodevelopmental disorders focus on whether the person is exhibiting behaviors appropriate for their age or maturity range. Selected disorders in scope for AP Psychology in this category are attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD).• Possible causes of neurodevelopmental disorders may be environmental, physiological, or genetic in nature.5.4B—Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected schizophrenic spectrum disordersDescribe the symptoms and possible causes of selected schizophrenic spectrum disorders.• Schizophrenic spectrum disorders are characterized by issues in one or more of these five areas: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking or speech, disorganized motor behavior, and negative symptoms. Schizophrenia can be experienced as an acute or chronic condition.- i. Delusions (false beliefs) are positive symptoms and may manifest in ways such as delusions of persecution or grandeur.- ii. Hallucinations (false perceptions) are positive symptoms and may involve one or more of the senses.- iii. Disorganized thinking or speech is a positive symptom and may manifest as speaking in ways such as speaking in a word salad (stringing together words in nonsensical ways).- iv. Disorganized motor behavior may manifest as catatonia. Catatonia, or disordered movement, may be experienced as excitement (a positive symptom manifestation) or stupor (a negative symptom manifestation).- v. Negative symptoms present as the lack of a typical behavior, such as the lack of emotional expression (flat affect) or lack of movement (catatonic stupor).• Possible causes of schizophrenia suggest a genetic or biological link, such as prenatal virus exposure or imbalances with certain neurotransmitters (dopamine hypothesis).5.4C—Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected depressive disorders. | Possible causes of depressive…Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected depressive disorders. | Possible causes of depressive disorders focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive sources.• Depressive disorders are characterized by the presence of sad, empty, or irritable mood along with physical and cognitive changes that affect a person’s ability to function. Selected disorders in scope for AP Psychology in this category are major depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder.• Possible causes of depressive disorders focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive sources.5.4D—Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected bipolar disordersDescribe the symptoms and possible causes of selected bipolar disorders.• Bipolar disorders are characterized by periods of mania and periods of depression. Bipolar cycling involves experiencing periods of depression and mania in alternating periods that can last various amounts of time. Selected disorders in scope for AP Psychology in this category are Bipolar I disorder and Bipolar II disorder.• Possible causes of bipolar disorders focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive sources.5.4E—Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected anxiety disordersDescribe the symptoms and possible causes of selected anxiety disorders.• Anxiety disorders are characterized by excessive fear and/or anxiety with related disturbances to behavior. Selected disorders in scope for AP Psychology in this category are specific phobia, agoraphobia, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder.- i. Specific phobia involves fear or anxiety toward a specific object or situation, such as acrophobia (heights) or arachnophobia (spiders).- ii. Agoraphobia is intense fear of specific social situations, including using public transportation, being in open spaces, being in enclosed spaces (e.g., shops, theaters, etc.), standing in line or being in a crowd, or being outside of the home alone.- iii. Panic disorder involves the experience of panic attacks (unanticipated and overwhelming biological, cognitive, and emotional experiences of fear/anxiety). Panic disorder can manifest as a culturebound anxiety disorder such as ataque de nervios (experienced mainly by people of Caribbean or Iberian descent).- iv. Social anxiety disorder involves the intense fear of being judged or watched by others. Social anxiety disorder is distinct from but may include agoraphobia. Taijin kyofusho is a culture-bound anxiety disorder experienced mainly by Japanese people in which people fear others are judging their bodies as undesirable, offensive, or unpleasing.- v. Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) involves prolonged experiences of nonspecific anxiety or fear.• Possible causes of anxiety disorders focus on learned associations between and among stimuli, maladaptive thinking or emotional responses, and biological or genetic sources.5.4F—Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected obsessive-compulsive disorders and related disordersDescribe the symptoms and possible causes of selected obsessive-compulsive disorders and related disorders.• Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders are characterized by the presence of obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (intrusive, often repetitive, behaviors intended to address obsessions). Selected disorders in scope for AP Psychology in this category are obsessive-compulsive disorder and hoarding disorder.• Possible causes of obsessive-compulsive disorders involve learned associations between and among stimuli, maladaptive thinking or emotional responses, and biological or genetic sources.5.4G—Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected dissociative disordersDescribe the symptoms and possible causes of selected dissociative disorders.• Dissociative disorders are characterized by dissociations from consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation, motor control, and behavior. Selected disorders in scope for AP Psychology in this category are dissociative amnesia (with and without fugue) and dissociative identity disorder.• Possible causes of dissociative disorders involve the experience of trauma or stress. IVE5.4H—Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected trauma and stressor-related disordersDescribe the symptoms and possible causes of selected trauma and stressor-related disorders.• Trauma and stressor-related disorders are characterized by exposure to a traumatic or stressful event with subsequent psychological distress. Symptoms of trauma and stressorrelated disorders may involve hypervigilance, severe anxiety, flashbacks to traumatic or stressful experiences, insomnia, emotional detachment, and hostility. The selected disorder in scope for AP Psychology in this category is posttraumatic stress disorder.• Possible causes of trauma and stressor-related disorders involve the experience of trauma or stress.5.4I—Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected feeding and eating disordersDescribe the symptoms and possible causes of selected feeding and eating disorders.• Feeding and eating disorders are characterized by altered consumption or absorption of food that impairs health or psychological functioning. Selected disorders in scope for AP Psychology in this category are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.• Possible causes of feeding and eating disorders focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive sources.5.4J—Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected personality disorders. UNIT 5 Mental and Physical HealthDescribe the symptoms and possible causes of selected personality disorders. UNIT 5 Mental and Physical Health• Personality disorders (which fall into three clusters) are characterized by enduring patterns of internal experience and behavior that is deviant from one’s culture; is pervasive and inflexible; begins in adolescence or early adulthood; is stable over time; and leads to personal distress or impairment.- i. Cluster A is the odd or eccentric cluster and includes paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.- ii. Cluster B is the dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster and includes antisocial, histrionic, narcissistic, and borderline personality disorders.- iii. Cluster C is the anxious or fearful cluster and includes avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.• Possible causes of personality disorders focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive sources.
Neurodevelopmental Disorders Begin During Development
Neurodevelopmental disorders begin during the developmental period. Their symptoms are evaluated in relation to behavior expected for the person's age or maturity range, so the same behavior cannot be interpreted without developmental context.
| AP scope element | CED boundary |
|---|---|
| Selected disorders | Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) |
| Symptom frame | Whether behavior is appropriate for age or maturity range |
| Possible causes | Environmental, physiological, or genetic |
A valid description connects the observed pattern to developmental timing and functioning rather than treating one isolated behavior as sufficient. Possible causes identify domains to investigate; they do not prove that one factor produced a disorder.
The CED names ADHD and ASD here but does not supply full diagnostic criteria. Age-inappropriate behavior may be relevant evidence, but diagnosis requires a broader trained assessment.
Schizophrenia Symptoms Add, Disorganize, or Remove Function
| Area | CED description | Symptom type |
|---|---|---|
| Delusion | False belief, such as persecution or grandeur | Positive |
| Hallucination | False perception involving one or more senses | Positive |
| Disorganized thinking or speech | May include word salad, a nonsensical string of words | Positive |
| Disorganized motor behavior | May include catatonic excitement or stupor | Positive or negative manifestation |
| Negative symptom | Lack of a typical behavior, such as flat affect or movement | Negative |
Schizophrenia can be acute or chronic. Positive symptoms add or markedly distort experience or behavior; negative symptoms involve a reduction or absence of typical functioning. Catatonia can appear as excitement or as stupor, so its manifestation determines the classification.
Possible causes suggest genetic or biological links, including prenatal virus exposure and neurotransmitter imbalance described by the dopamine hypothesis. These are risk explanations, not single-case proof.
Hallucinations are perceptions; delusions are beliefs. Schizophrenia is not the same as dissociative identity disorder, and the presence of one unusual experience alone does not establish a diagnosis.
Depressive Disorders Combine Mood Change and Impaired Function
Depressive disorders involve a sad, empty, or irritable mood together with physical and cognitive changes that affect the person's ability to function. The functional effect separates a clinically relevant pattern from an ordinary temporary mood alone.
| AP scope | Included content |
|---|---|
| Selected disorders | Major depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder |
| Possible-cause domains | Biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive |
Relevant evidence can include mood plus changes in areas such as thought, sleep, appetite, pleasure, or other functioning when supported by the scenario. A causal explanation must name the supported domain rather than assume every depressive pattern has the same origin.
Sadness by itself is not equivalent to a depressive disorder. The CED names the two selected disorders but does not provide subtype duration thresholds here, so those thresholds should not be invented.
Bipolar Disorders Alternate Mania and Depression
Bipolar disorders are characterized by periods of mania and periods of depression. Bipolar cycling means these mood periods alternate, and each period can last a different amount of time.
| AP scope element | Included content |
|---|---|
| Selected disorders | Bipolar I disorder and Bipolar II disorder |
| Defining pattern | Alternating periods of mania and depression |
| Possible-cause domains | Biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive |
The key evidence is a pattern across time, not simply intense emotion at one moment. Possible causes may come from several domains, so a biological risk finding and a social stressor can both be relevant without either being a universal cause.
Bipolar cycling is not ordinary rapid mood change in everyday situations. The CED names Bipolar I and II but does not specify their distinguishing episode thresholds here, so the card does not add them.
Anxiety Disorders Differ by the Focus of Fear
| Disorder | Distinguishing focus |
|---|---|
| Specific phobia | A particular object or situation, such as heights or spiders |
| Agoraphobia | Situations such as transport, open or enclosed spaces, crowds or lines, or being outside home alone |
| Panic disorder | Unanticipated, overwhelming panic attacks involving biological, cognitive, and emotional fear |
| Social anxiety disorder | Intense fear of being judged or watched by others |
| Generalized anxiety disorder | Prolonged nonspecific anxiety or fear |
The CED includes culture-bound manifestations. Ataque de nervios is associated mainly with people of Caribbean or Iberian descent. Taijin kyofusho, associated mainly with Japanese people, involves fear that others judge one's body as undesirable, offensive, or unpleasing.
Possible causes include learned associations, maladaptive thinking or emotional responses, and biological or genetic sources. The supported cause must be inferred from evidence in the scenario, not from the disorder label alone.
Agoraphobia is not simply fear of open spaces, and social anxiety is not merely shyness. Social anxiety is distinct from, though it may include, agoraphobia.
Obsessions and Compulsions Form a Thought–Action Cycle
| Construct | CED meaning | Role in the cycle |
|---|---|---|
| Obsession | Intrusive thought | Produces a concern or distress that the person experiences |
| Compulsion | Intrusive, often repetitive behavior intended to address an obsession | Acts as the attempted response to the obsession |
The selected disorders in AP scope are obsessive-compulsive disorder and hoarding disorder. Possible causes may involve learned associations, maladaptive thinking or emotional responses, and biological or genetic sources.
A repetitive action counts as a compulsion in this framework when it is intended to address an obsession, such as reducing anxiety linked to the intrusive thought. Repetition alone does not reveal the function of the behavior.
An obsession is not ordinary enthusiasm, and a compulsion is not merely a preferred routine. The CED names hoarding disorder but does not provide separate criteria here, so none are inferred.
Dissociation Disrupts Integration of Experience
Dissociative disorders involve disruptions or separations in normally integrated experience. The CED domains include consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation, motor control, and behavior.
| AP scope element | Included content |
|---|---|
| Selected disorders | Dissociative amnesia, with or without fugue, and dissociative identity disorder |
| Possible causes | Experience of trauma or stress |
To recognize this category, identify which aspect of experience is disconnected—for example memory or identity—rather than looking for a hallucination or delusion. Trauma or stress is a possible causal context, not proof from symptoms alone.
Dissociation is not the same as schizophrenia. The CED names amnesia with and without fugue but does not give a separate fugue criterion here, so the card does not invent one.
PTSD Links Trauma Exposure to Continuing Distress
Trauma and stressor-related disorders begin with exposure to a traumatic or stressful event followed by psychological distress. The selected disorder in AP scope is posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
CED-listed possible symptoms are hypervigilance, severe anxiety, flashbacks to traumatic or stressful experiences, insomnia, emotional detachment, and hostility. A scenario may show more than one because the category includes cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and arousal-related effects.
The diagnostic learning link is temporal and contextual: a trauma or stressor is experienced, and continuing psychological distress follows. Possible causes therefore involve the experience of trauma or stress.
Experiencing stress or one short-lived reaction does not by itself establish PTSD. The CED supplies a category pattern, while diagnosis requires trained assessment of the complete presentation.
Feeding and Eating Disorders Impair Health or Function
Feeding and eating disorders involve altered consumption or absorption of food that impairs physical health or psychological functioning. The impairment is part of the category definition; a food preference alone is not enough.
| AP scope element | Included content |
|---|---|
| Selected disorders | Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa |
| Possible-cause domains | Biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive |
A description should identify the altered food-related pattern and its effect on health or psychological functioning. A cause explanation should name the supported domain and avoid assuming that culture, biology, or cognition acts alone in every case.
The CED names anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa but does not give their differential diagnostic criteria in this Objective. Do not infer a diagnosis from body size, one meal, or appearance.
Personality Disorders Are Enduring, Pervasive Patterns
Personality disorders involve an enduring pattern of internal experience and behavior that deviates from the person's culture, is pervasive and inflexible, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, remains stable over time, and causes personal distress or impairment.
| Cluster | CED description | Selected disorders |
|---|---|---|
| A | Odd or eccentric | Paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal |
| B | Dramatic, emotional, or erratic | Antisocial, histrionic, narcissistic, borderline |
| C | Anxious or fearful | Avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive personality |
Possible causes may involve biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive sources. The classification focuses on a stable pattern across contexts and time, not on one isolated trait or reaction.
A personality trait is not automatically a personality disorder; the pattern must be enduring, pervasive, inflexible, culturally deviant, and linked with distress or impairment. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is listed in Cluster C and is not the same label as obsessive-compulsive disorder.