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3.1 AS Level content - core studies

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  1. Biological approach

    1. • Main assumptions of the biological approach - Behaviour, cognitions and emotions can be explained in terms of the working of the brain and the effect of hormones, genetics and evolution. - Similarities and differences between people can be understood in terms of biological factors and their interaction with other factors.

    2. • Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) - Dement, W and Kleitman, N (1957), The relation of eye movements during sleep to dream activity: An objective method for the study of dreaming. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 53(5): 339-46 - The study by Dement and Kleitman investigated the relationship between rapid eye movements (REM) and dreaming. It included EEGs, REM and Non-REM sleep, used experimental and correlational methods and an interview technique. - The psychology being investigated includes: sleep; dreaming; ultradian rhythms. - For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

    3. • Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences) - Hassett, J M, Siebert, E R and Wallen, K (2008), Sex differences in rhesus monkey toy preferences parallel those of children. Hormones and Behaviour, 54(3): 359-64 - The study by Hassett et al. was an experiment investigating sex differences for toy preferences in monkeys, whose behaviour is assumed to be more biologically controlled than that of children. Interactions with stereotypical boys' toys and girls' toys were observed and coded using a behavioural checklist. Human participants were not included in the sample of this study. To compare monkey toy preferences to those of children, data from another study was used. - The psychology being investigated includes: sex differences; socialisation; play; the role of hormones. - For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

    4. • Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) - Hölzel, B K, Carmody, J, Vangel, M, Congleton, C, Yerramsetti, S M, Gard, T and Lazar, S W (2011), Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density. Psychiatry Research, 191(1): 36-43 - The study by Hölzel et al. investigated the effects of mindfulness practice on brain structure in an experiment using a longitudinal design. The techniques used included MRI scans and self-reports. The study also used correlations. - The psychology being investigated includes: mindfulness; localisation of function. - For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

  2. Cognitive approach

    1. • Main assumptions of the cognitive approach - Information is processed through the same route in all humans: input - process - output, in a similar way to how information is processed by a computer. - People have individual differences in their cognitive processing such as with attention, language, thinking and memory. These processes can also help to explain behaviour and emotion.

    2. • Andrade (doodling) - Andrade, J (2010), What does doodling do? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(1): 100-6 - The study by Andrade explored the idea that doodling can assist a person's concentration and memory. This was investigated in a laboratory experiment. - The psychology being investigated includes: attention; memory. - For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

    3. • Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) - Baron-Cohen, S, Wheelwright, S, Hill, J, Raste, Y and Plumb, I (2001), The 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes' Test revised version: a study with normal adults, and adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(2): 241-51 - The study by Baron-Cohen et al. investigated theory of mind in adults including those with Asperger syndrome or autism. The study aimed to improve the original 1997 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes' Test, a questionnaire that was completed online. The research methods used in this study included experiments and correlations. - The psychology being investigated includes: theory of mind; social sensitivity. - For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

    4. • Pozzulo et al. (line-ups) - Pozzulo, J D, Dempsey, J, Bruer, K and Sheahan, C (2011), The Culprit in Target-Absent Lineups: Understanding Young Children's False Positive Responding. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 27(1): 55-62 - The study by Pozzulo et al. investigated factors affecting memory for target faces in a line-up, as used in identification of a criminal by an eyewitness. This was tested using the faces of cartoon characters and humans. The laboratory experiment also made comparisons between adults and children and used interviews and questionnaires as techniques. - The psychology being investigated includes: false positive responses; eyewitness testimony. - For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

  3. Learning approach

    1. • Main assumptions of the learning approach - We all begin life as a blank slate. Experiences and interactions with the environment shape our behaviour and these changes are directly observable. - We learn through the processes of operant conditioning, classical conditioning and social learning. This can be understood using the stimulus-response model.

    2. • Bandura et al. (aggression) - Bandura, A, Ross, D and Ross, S A (1961), Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3): 575-82 - The study by Bandura et al. tested social learning theory. The study investigated whether a child would imitate aggressive behaviour if they witnessed such behaviour in an adult. The study was an experiment comparing several variables using observation as a technique to collect data. - The psychology being investigated includes: social learning theory; aggression. - For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

    3. • Fagen et al. (elephant learning) - Fagen, A, Acharya, N and Kaufman, G E (2014), Positive Reinforcement Training for a Trunk Wash in Nepal's Working Elephants: Demonstrating Alternatives to Traditional Elephant Training Techniques. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 17(2): 83-97 - The study by Fagen et al. investigated the use of positive reinforcement training for trunk washing in a group of working elephants to improve captive management and welfare. Secondary reinforcement training was used to train the elephants to perform specific behaviours. The research method was an observation with success measured using a behavioural checklist. - The psychology being investigated includes: operant conditioning; reinforcement (positive, negative, primary and secondary); shaping; behavioural chaining. - For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

    4. • Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) - Saavedra, L M and Silverman, W K (2002), Case study: disgust and a specific phobia of buttons. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(11): 1376-79 Saavedra and Silverman studied a child with button phobia. They investigated how classical conditioning can be used to treat a child's phobia by targeting disgust and fear responses. The case study research method was used with interviews, various scales and observations as techniques. - The psychology being investigated includes: evaluative learning; operant conditioning; classical conditioning; phobias. - For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

  4. Social approach

    1. • Main assumptions of the social approach - Behaviour, cognitions and emotions are influenced by social contexts, social environments and groups. - Behaviour, cognitions and emotions are influenced by the actual, implied or imagined presence of others.

    2. • Milgram (obedience) - Milgram, S (1963), Behavioral Study of Obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(4): 371-78 - The study by Milgram investigated the conflict between obedience to authority and personal conscience and how far a person would go in obeying an instruction if it meant harming another person. This includes considering dispositional and situational hypotheses. A laboratory setting was used to measure obedience, described as a 'dependent variable' but there was no independent variable in the main study. The study used observations and an interview as techniques. - Please Note: Milgram conducted many variations on this study. This study did not provide the 'teacher' with voice-feedback from the 'victim'. - The psychology being investigated includes: obedience; social pressure. - For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

    3. • Perry et al. (personal space) - Perry, A, Mankuta, D and Shamay-Tsoory, S G (2015), OT promotes closer interpersonal distance among highly empathic individuals. Social, Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 10(1): 3-9 - The study by Perry et al. investigated personal space (interpersonal distance). They tested how empathy and oxytocin affected the perception of personal space using a placebo to compare to oxytocin. Two experiments used different techniques to measure interpersonal distance and questionnaires were also used. Experiment 1 used a computerised version of the Comfortable Interpersonal Distance Scale. In Experiment 2, participants chose between pictures of different rooms. - The psychology being investigated includes: interpersonal distance (personal space); social hormones; empathy. - For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

    4. • Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) - Piliavin, I M, Rodin, J and Piliavin, J A (1969), Good Samaritanism: An Underground Phenomenon? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13(4): 289-99 - The study by Piliavin et al. tested bystander apathy. The study investigated how bystanders behave in real life situations and the factors that can affect their desire to help. This includes considering diffusion of responsibility. The study was a field experiment and used observations as a technique. - The psychology being investigated includes: bystander apathy; diffusion of responsibility. - For this study, candidates should understand the background, aims, procedure and methodology as appropriate (research method, sample and demographics, sampling technique, experimental design, controls, question types, data-collection technique, and measured and manipulated variables), ethical issues, quantitative and qualitative results and their representation and interpretation, conclusions, and strengths and weaknesses; describe and evaluate the methodology; and relate the study to psychological issues and debates.

  5. AS Level issues and debates

    1. Application of psychology to everyday life

      Consider how each core study, where appropriate, can be applied to everyday life.

    2. Individual and situational explanations

      Consider individual and situational explanations in relation to each core study, where appropriate.

    3. Nature versus nurture

      Consider the nature versus nurture debate in relation to each core study, where appropriate.

    4. Use of children in psychological research

      Consider the use of children in psychological research in relation to each core study, where appropriate.

    5. Use of animals in psychological research

      Consider the use of animals in psychological research in relation to each core study, where appropriate.