11. Organic chemistry
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11.1 Formulae, functional groups and terminology
11.1.1And interpret the displayed formula of
• Draw and interpret the displayed formula of a molecule to show all the atoms and all the bonds
11.1.2Write and interpret general formulae
• Write and interpret general formulae of compounds in the same homologous series, (a) alkanes, C nH2n+2 (b) alkenes, CnH2n (c) alcohols, C nH2n+1OH (d) carboxylic acids, CnH2n+1COOH
11.1.3Functional group as an atom or group
• Identify a functional group as an atom or group of atoms that determine the chemical properties of a homologous series
11.1.7Structural formula is an unambiguous
• State: a structural formula is an unambiguous description of the way the atoms in a molecule are arranged, including CH 2=CH2, CH3CH2OH, CH3COOCH3
11.1.8Structural isomers as compounds with
• Define structural isomers as compounds with the same molecular formula, but different structural formulae, including C4H10 as CH3CH2CH2CH3 and CH3CH(CH3)CH3 and C4H8 as CH3CH2CH=CH2 and CH3CH=CHCH3
11.1.4Homologous series is a family of
• State: a homologous series is a family of similar compounds with similar chemical properties due to the presence of the same functional group
11.1.5Saturated compound has molecules in
• State: a saturated compound has molecules in which all carbon–carbon bonds are single bonds
11.1.6An unsaturated compound has molecules
• State: an unsaturated compound has molecules in which one or more carbon– carbon bonds are not single bonds
11.1.9Homologous series features: same
• Describe homologous series features: same functional group and general formula, adjacent members differ by -CH2-, physical properties show trends, chemical properties are similar
11.2 Naming organic compounds
11.2.1Displayed formulae of: (a) methane and
• Name and draw the displayed formulae of: (a) methane and ethane (b) ethene (c) ethanol (d) ethanoic acid (e) the products of the reactions stated in sections 11.4–11.7
11.2.2Type of compound present, given a
• State the type of compound present, given a chemical name ending in -ane, -ene, -ol, or -oic acid or from a molecular formula or displayed formula
11.2.3Structural and displayed formulae of
• Name/draw structural and displayed formulae of unbranched alkanes, alkenes (including but-1-ene/but-2-ene), alcohols (propan-1-ol/propan-2-ol/butan-1-ol/butan-2-ol) and carboxylic acids up to four carbons
11.2.4Displayed formulae of the unbranched
• Name and draw the displayed formulae of the unbranched esters which can be made from unbranched alcohols and carboxylic acids, each containing up to four carbon atoms
11.3 Fuels
11.3.1Fossil fuels: coal, natural gas and
• Name the fossil fuels: coal, natural gas and petroleum
11.3.2Methane as the main constituent of
• Name methane as the main constituent of natural gas
11.3.3Hydrocarbons are compounds that
• State: hydrocarbons are compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon only
11.3.4Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons
• State: petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons
11.3.5Separation of petroleum into useful
• Describe separation of petroleum into useful fractions by fractional distillation
11.3.6Petroleum fraction trends up the
• Describe petroleum fraction trends up the column: shorter chains, higher volatility, lower boiling points and lower viscosity
11.3.7Fraction uses: refinery gas for
• Name fraction uses: refinery gas for heating/cooking; gasoline/petrol for cars; naphtha feedstock; kerosene/paraffin jet fuel; diesel oil/gas oil for diesel engines; fuel oil for ships/home heating; lubricating oil for lubricants/waxes/polishes; bitumen for roads
11.4 Alkanes
11.4.1Bonding in alkanes is single covalent
• State: the bonding in alkanes is single covalent and that alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons
11.4.2Properties of alkanes as being
• Describe properties of alkanes as being generally unreactive, except in terms of combustion and substitution by chlorine
11.4.3In a substitution reaction one atom or
• State: in a substitution reaction one atom or group of atoms is replaced by another atom or group of atoms
11.4.4Substitution reaction of alkanes with
• Describe substitution reaction of alkanes with chlorine as a photochemical reaction, with ultraviolet light providing the activation energy, Ea, and draw the structural or displayed formulae of the products, limited to monosubstitution
11.5 Alkenes
11.5.1Bonding in alkenes includes a double
• State: the bonding in alkenes includes a double carbon–carbon covalent bond and that alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons
11.5.2Manufacture of alkenes and hydrogen by
• Describe manufacture of alkenes and hydrogen by the cracking of larger alkane molecules using a high temperature and a catalyst
11.5.3Reasons for the cracking of larger
• Describe reasons for the cracking of larger alkane molecules
11.5.4Test to distinguish between saturated
• Describe test to distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons by their reaction with aqueous bromine
11.5.5In an addition reaction only one
• State: in an addition reaction only one product is formed
11.5.6Alkene addition reactions with
• Describe alkene addition reactions with bromine/aqueous bromine, hydrogen with nickel catalyst, and steam with acid catalyst; draw structural/displayed formulae of products
11.6 Alcohols
11.6.1Ethanol manufacture
• Describe ethanol manufacture by: (a) fermentation of aqueous glucose at 25-35 °C with yeast and no oxygen (b) catalytic steam addition to ethene at 300 °C and 6000 kPa/60 atm with acid catalyst
11.6.2Combustion of ethanol
• Describe combustion of ethanol
11.6.3Uses of ethanol as: (a) a solvent (b)
• State the uses of ethanol as: (a) a solvent (b) a fuel
11.6.4Advantages and disadvantages of the
• Describe advantages and disadvantages of the manufacture of ethanol by: (a) fermentation (b) catalytic addition of steam to ethene
11.7 Carboxylic acids
11.7.1Reaction of ethanoic acid
• Describe reaction of ethanoic acid with: (a) metals (b) bases (c) carbonates including names and formulae of the salts produced
11.7.2Formation of ethanoic acid by the
• Describe formation of ethanoic acid by the oxidation of ethanol: (a) with acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII) (b) by bacterial oxidation during vinegar production
11.7.3Reaction of a carboxylic acid with an
• Describe reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol using an acid catalyst to form an ester
11.8 Polymers
11.8.1Polymers as large molecules built up
• Define polymers as large molecules built up from many smaller molecules called monomers
11.8.2Formation of poly(ethene) as an
• Describe formation of poly(ethene) as an example of addition polymerisation using ethene monomers
11.8.3Plastics are made from polymers
• State: plastics are made from polymers
11.8.4Properties of plastics have
• Describe how the properties of plastics have implications for their disposal
11.8.5Environmental challenges caused by
• Describe environmental challenges caused by plastics, (a) disposal in landfill sites (b) accumulation in oceans (c) formation of toxic gases from burning
11.8.6Repeat units and/or linkages in
• Identify the repeat units and/or linkages in addition polymers and in condensation polymers
11.8.7Deduce the structure or repeat unit of
• Deduce the structure or repeat unit of an addition polymer from a given alkene and vice versa
11.8.8Deduce the structure or repeat unit of
• Deduce the structure or repeat unit of a condensation polymer from given monomers and vice versa, (a) polyamides from a dicarboxylic acid and a diamine (b) polyesters from a dicarboxylic acid and a diol
11.8.9Differences between addition and
• Describe differences between addition and condensation polymerisation
11.8.10And draw the structure of: (a) nylon
• Describe and draw the structure of: (a) nylon, a polyamide C O C O C C OO N H N H N H N H (b) PET, a polyester C O C O C C OO O OO O The full name for PET, polyethylene terephthalate, is not required
11.8.11PET can be converted back into
• State: PET can be converted back into monomers and re-polymerised
11.8.12Proteins as natural polyamides and
• Describe proteins as natural polyamides and that they are formed from amino acid monomers with the general structure: H O H OH N H C C R where R represents different types of side- chain
11.8.13And draw the structure of proteins as
• Describe and draw the structure of proteins as: N H C O N H C O N H C O