Topic 1: Foundation

1.1 Perspectives

1.2 Systems

1.3 Sustainability

Topic 2: Ecology

2.1 Individuals, populations, communities, and ecosystems

2.2 Energy and biomass in ecosystems

2.3 Biogeochemical cycles

2.4 Climate and biomes

2.5 Zonation, succession and change

Topic 3: Biodiversity and conservation

3.1 Biodiversity and evolution

3.2 Human impact on biodiversity

3.3 Conservation and regeneration

Topic 4: Water

4.1 Water systems

4.2 Water access, use and security

4.3 Aquatic food production systems

4.4 Water pollution

Topic 5: Land

5.1 Soil

5.2 Agriculture and food

Topic 6: Atmosphere and climate change

6.1 Introduction to the atmosphere

6.2 Climate change—causes and impacts

6.3 Climate change—mitigation and adaptation

6.4 Stratospheric ozone

Topic 7: Natural resources

7.1 Natural resources—uses and management

7.2 Energy sources—uses and management

7.3 Solid waste

Topic 8: Human populations and urban systems

8.1 Human populations

8.2 Urban systems and urban planning

8.3 Urban air pollution

HL.a Environmental law

HL.b Environmental economics

HL.b.1—Economics definition

HL.b.2—Environmental economics

HL.b.3—Market failure

HL.b.4—Polluter-pays principle

HL.b.5—Greenwashing

HL.b.6—Tragedy of the commons

HL.b.7—Environmental accounting

HL.b.8—Use vs. non-use values

HL.b.9—Ecological economics

HL.b.10—Ecosystem services valuation

HL.b.11—Economic growth measurement

HL.b.12—Economic growth perspective

HL.b.13—Economic growth environmental impacts

HL.b.14—Eco-economic decoupling

HL.b.15—Ecological economics and degrowth

HL.b.16—Slow/no/zero growth model

HL.b.17—Circular economy and doughnut economics

HL.c Environmental ethics

IB ESS HL HL.b.6—Tragedy of the commons Question Bank

• Unclear property rights → overexploitation

• Limitation of free market economics

• Alternative approaches: Ostrom's shared pastures

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