IB Psychology HL 2.4 Research Methodology Questions
Practise IB Psychology HL 2.4 by designing and critiquing complex studies, statistics, ethics and cultural-validity claims.
- Syllabus
- First assessment 2027
- Course
- Psychology HL
- Level
- HL
Exam points
- Choose and justify designs, sampling, operationalisation, controls and analysis for complex research questions.
- Evaluate reliability, validity, ethics, bias, replication and cultural generalisability across studies.
- Interpret quantitative and qualitative evidence with uncertainty and avoid causal or statistical overclaims.
Covered syllabus points
Question 1
[Maximum number: 10]
The stimulus material below is based on a research article.
Adolescents spend an increasing amount of time on the internet. For some adolescents, playing online games is particularly attractive and research shows that it may be one of the most addictive activities on the internet. Excessive use of online games may have a negative impact on aspects of psychological health, academic work and interpersonal relationships. The aim of this study was to investigate psychological motivation to participate in online games, in order to produce a more detailed picture of possible factors influencing online gaming addiction. Five adolescents found in an internet café in a large city were asked if they were willing to
participate in the qualitative research. They gave the names of five other participants who also agreed to take part. All participants were between the ages of 14 and 16. They said they spent approximately 48 hours playing online games per week and they had an average of three years’ experience of online gaming. The researchers obtained informed consent from all participants. Data was collected through individual semi-structured interviews and each interview was recorded. The interviews were then transcribed and analysed using inductive content analysis. The content analysis showed that participant motivation could be categorized into four major or higher-order themes:
• excitement and entertainment (for example, playing for fun, arousal when participants are about to win or lose)
• emotional coping (for example, trying to escape loneliness and boredom)
• escaping from reality (for example, homework and chores)
• interpersonal and social needs (for example, making friendships, playing with other adolescents instead of playing alone). Most of the participants said that their lives would be really boring if they could not play online games but two of them expressed some concern that they spent so much time online. The participants did not see themselves as “addicted” to online gaming although most of them said that they could not resist the temptation to play games and that this had become the main focus of their life. The researchers argued that the explanations that these adolescents reported for participation in online gaming were probably biased, since addiction is a sensitive topic. The researchers concluded that online gaming had the potential to be addictive. This was particularly the case when it was used to escape from reality and to cope with emotional problems.
[Source: Adapted from: summary of findings in Wan, C-S. and Chiou, W.-B. (2006). “Why Are Adolescents Addicted to Online Gaming? An Interview Study in Taiwan”. Cyber Psychology & Behaviour, volume 9, number 6, pp. 762–766.]
Describe the use of inductive content analysis (thematic analysis) in this study.
Refer to the paper 3 markbands when awarding marks.
The command term "describe" requires candidates to give a detailed account of how inductive content analysis could be applied to the interview transcripts in the study.
Responses that use the term "experiment" as a generic term for "study" should not be penalized for this.
In the context of this study, candidates should describe characteristics or features of the procedure of inductive content analysis. Relevant parts of the procedure of inductive content analysis in this study could be, but are not limited to:
- Analysis of the transcripts of the interview to identify possible themes that relate to adolescents’ own perceptions of their addiction to internet games.
- Following a systematic analysis of the transcript for emerging themes (for example, "avoiding homework" or "finding friends") the researcher could try to connect emerging themes in meaningful ways to establish possible hierarchies of themes.
- Constructing a summary table of the four higher-order themes mentioned in the stimulus material.
- Connecting the subordinate themes with relevant quotations from the adolescents to support the choice of each theme. The final task is to make interpretations based on the analysis.
Responses that do not describe the use of inductive content analysis in this study but merely refer to the themes mentioned in the stimulus material should be awarded up to a maximum of [3 marks].
Question 2
[Maximum number: 10]
The stimulus material below is based on a research article that describes the differences between the portrayal of love and romance in Western culture and women’ s actual experiences.
In Western culture, romance is the main theme of many movies, songs and books. However, the media’s representations of love are not often what people experience in their own lives. This may be a source of frustration. The aim of this qualitative study was to investigate the extent to which heterosexual women’s perceptions of romantic love matched what they had experienced in their own romantic love relationships. The researcher was a female psychologist who also worked as a couples’ therapist. She said that her reason for doing the study was that ever since she was a young woman she had tried to understand her own emotional responses when she was in love. She had seen other women struggling with the same questions and emotional responses as she herself had experienced. This study was conducted in New Zealand. The purposive sample consisted of eight heterosexual women who were either therapists or psychology students. They were recruited through the researcher’s own social networks. The data were collected using semi-structured interviews. With the permission of the participants, the interviews were recorded on audiotape and later transcribed. The transcriptions were shown to the participants to ensure that they were accurate. The transcripts were then analysed using inductive content analysis. The analysis revealed themes such as “romantic love is an illusion” but also that “romantic love provides intimacy and physical closeness”. All the women talked about how they have to “struggle for equality” in their romantic relationships, and that there is a “danger of losing friends and of giving up other interests” through focusing too much on their partners. The researcher acknowledged in the research article that reflexivity was important in this study. The study revealed that the women had mixed perceptions of romantic love. On the one hand, they desired to experience and express love fully, but at the same time they did not want to give up their independence. Negative experiences in previous romantic love relationships had taught these women to resist being too dependent on their male partners and not to give up their own friends and interests. According to these women, maintaining some degree of independence results in more equal and satisfying love relationships. The researcher concluded that these women’s experiences of love are different from stories about love in literature and the media.
Explain why reflexivity is relevant to this study.
Refer to the paper 3 markbands when awarding marks.
The command term "explain" requires candidates to give a detailed account of why reflexivity is relevant in this study and give reasons or causes by referring to details of the study.
Responses that use the term "experiment" as a generic term for "study" should not be penalized.
There is reference to reflexivity in the stimulus material (lines 20-21) and candidates need to rely on their knowledge of reflexivity and provide reasons for why reflexivity could be relevant to this particular study.
Reflexivity is a strategy used by qualitative researchers to reveal how a researcher's subjectivity contributes to the findings. For example, a researcher may be biased towards the findings of a study because she perceives and interprets data through her own individual lens. Reflexivity is thus one way to establish credibility/trustworthiness in qualitative research.
Candidates' explanations as to why reflexivity is relevant to this study could be but are not limited to:
- epistemological reflexivity: for example, the eight participants were all psychologists or psychology students from the researcher's own social network, so candidates may refer to epistemological reflexivity such as considering if the purposive sampling method used in the study is appropriate
- personal reflexivity: for example, the researcher herself states that "ever since she was a young woman she had tried to understand her own emotional responses when she was in love". This statement indicates a subjective interest in the topic under investigation that could potentially bias the results and this alone could justify the application of personal reflexivity in order to avoid this bias.
The terms personal or epistemological reflexivity are not required to access the higher markbands.
Candidates could (but are not required to), as part of the explanation as to why reflexivity is relevant in this study, write how the researcher could apply personal reflexivity to avoid bias, for example, providing necessary information about her own experiences in love relationships and as a couples therapist, or including a critical self
reflection on her own interests in undertaking the study (for example, that the researcher had a desire to understand her own emotional responses). Bias could also be prevented by asking participants to verify the transcripts that are used as the basis for analysis as the researcher did in this study. Statements such as these could be part of an explanation of why reflexivity is relevant and this is perfectly acceptable.
Question 3
[Maximum number: 9]
Question (a)
(a)
The stimulus material below describes a study in which the aim was to understand the experiences of European adults who have received mental healthcare. An increasing number of people need treatment for mental health conditions. Examples of treatments include medication and talking therapies, such as counselling. It is important that mental healthcare providers consider the experiences of the people receiving care. The researchers employed interview facilitators in seven European countries. These facilitators were all mental healthcare workers, such as psychologists and mental health nurses. Each facilitator only carried out an interview in their own country. They were all known by their participants. There were 73 participants specifically chosen to take part. They all had experiences with different forms of treatment for a mental health problem. Some participants had paid for care, while others had received it for free, either from a charitable organization or as government- funded care. The length of their treatment had varied from six months to five years. One interview was carried out in each country. Each interview involved between 6 and 12 participants and was carried out in the native language of the country. Every effort was made to create a safe and friendly environment for the interview. The participants were informed about the aims of the study. They all gave permission for the interview to be audio-recorded and signed a consent form. The participants provided information about their age, gender and ethnicity. They also gave details about their mental health condition and the treatment they had received. The researchers wrote an interview guide in English. This was translated into the languages of the non-English speaking countries. The interviews began with general questions about the participants’ experiences. Once everyone felt comfortable sharing, the questions began to focus on the participants’ personal experiences of access to mental healthcare. They were also asked to share their views on the effectiveness and quality of their treatment. Each interview facilitator transcribed their audio-recorded interview and carried out an initial analysis of the transcript. They identified each participant with a unique code. The transcripts and initial analyses were then translated into English and sent to the researchers, who carried out further inductive content analysis. Several themes were identified by the researchers. These included “not knowing where to get help from” and “the importance of receiving help quickly.”
– 3 – 2225 – 5803 Disclaimer: Content used in IB assessments is taken from authentic, third-party sources. The views expressed within them belong to their individual authors and/or publishers and do not necessarily reflect the views of the IB. References: Axelsson, M., Schønning, V., Bockting, C. et al. Lived experiences: a focus group pilot study within the MentALLY project of mental healthcare among European users. BMC Health Serv Res 20, 605 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-020-05454-5. Source adapted. Licenced under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license: http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/deed.en.
Identify the research method used and outline two characteristics of the method.
Marking guidance:
Award [1] for identification of correct research method: Focus group interview (also accept focus group, group interview).
Award [0] for interview, structured interview, unstructured interview or semi-structured interview.
Answers related to an outline of characteristics of the method may include two of the following characteristics: [1] per relevant point. Maximum of [2].
The characteristic marks are specific to the research method (Focus group interview) rather than the described study.
- A focus group interview is carried out with a small group of participants who all take part in the interview at the same time/together.
- The interviewer acts as a facilitator and encourages the participants to talk openly about topics that are relevant to the research being carried out. The facilitator keeps the conversation focused and brings the group back to the topic if need be.
- Participants usually have something in common and this helps to create a more open and relevant discussion. They can develop their own ideas based on what they hear others sharing.
- The group participants are encouraged to talk amongst themselves rather than to the facilitator.
- A focus group interview provides a natural setting for interactions between participants because participants can use their own language, and it is less artificial than other forms of interview.
- Because of aspects such as the development of ideas and the expression of multiple perspectives, a focus group interview is likely to generate rich data.
- A focus group interview can experience issues related to group dynamics. These include conformity/social desirability bias, some participants sharing less and an unwillingness to share personal information in front of other participants.
Question (b)
(b)
The stimulus material below describes a study in which the aim was to understand the experiences of European adults who have received mental healthcare. An increasing number of people need treatment for mental health conditions. Examples of treatments include medication and talking therapies, such as counselling. It is important that mental healthcare providers consider the experiences of the people receiving care. The researchers employed interview facilitators in seven European countries. These facilitators were all mental healthcare workers, such as psychologists and mental health nurses. Each facilitator only carried out an interview in their own country. They were all known by their participants. There were 73 participants specifically chosen to take part. They all had experiences with different forms of treatment for a mental health problem. Some participants had paid for care, while others had received it for free, either from a charitable organization or as government- funded care. The length of their treatment had varied from six months to five years. One interview was carried out in each country. Each interview involved between 6 and 12 participants and was carried out in the native language of the country. Every effort was made to create a safe and friendly environment for the interview. The participants were informed about the aims of the study. They all gave permission for the interview to be audio-recorded and signed a consent form. The participants provided information about their age, gender and ethnicity. They also gave details about their mental health condition and the treatment they had received. The researchers wrote an interview guide in English. This was translated into the languages of the non-English speaking countries. The interviews began with general questions about the participants’ experiences. Once everyone felt comfortable sharing, the questions began to focus on the participants’ personal experiences of access to mental healthcare. They were also asked to share their views on the effectiveness and quality of their treatment. Each interview facilitator transcribed their audio-recorded interview and carried out an initial analysis of the transcript. They identified each participant with a unique code. The transcripts and initial analyses were then translated into English and sent to the researchers, who carried out further inductive content analysis. Several themes were identified by the researchers. These included “not knowing where to get help from” and “the importance of receiving help quickly.”
– 3 – 2225 – 5803 Disclaimer: Content used in IB assessments is taken from authentic, third-party sources. The views expressed within them belong to their individual authors and/or publishers and do not necessarily reflect the views of the IB. References: Axelsson, M., Schønning, V., Bockting, C. et al. Lived experiences: a focus group pilot study within the MentALLY project of mental healthcare among European users. BMC Health Serv Res 20, 605 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-020-05454-5. Source adapted. Licenced under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license: http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/deed.en.
Describe the sampling method used in the study.
Marking guidance:
Award [1] for naming the correct sampling method: Purposive sampling (also accept quota sampling, judgmental sampling or selective sampling).
Description of the sampling method used in the study may include two of the following characteristics:
[1] per relevant point. Maximum of [2].
Award [0] for description of the sample rather than the sampling method.
- Purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling method, which means that participants are not chosen randomly from a target population.
- A purposive sample is based on specific selection criteria / salient characteristics.
- This is used when researchers have a clear idea of the characteristics they want to study.
- Using the participants who are most relevant to the research question can increase the validity and reliability of the results. It also allows for a more efficient use of resources and time.
- Purposive sampling gives researchers the ability to focus on using the participants who are most likely to provide relevant data, potentially leading to faster data saturation.
- Because the participants are chosen based on characteristics that the researcher judges to be salient, there is a higher likelihood of the sample being affected by bias. This will decrease the likelihood of the sample being be representative of the population.
- However, researchers can also use purposive sampling to make sure that their sample includes a range of participants that reflect the diversity present within the population of interest.
Question (c)
(c)
The stimulus material below describes a study in which the aim was to understand the experiences of European adults who have received mental healthcare. An increasing number of people need treatment for mental health conditions. Examples of treatments include medication and talking therapies, such as counselling. It is important that mental healthcare providers consider the experiences of the people receiving care. The researchers employed interview facilitators in seven European countries. These facilitators were all mental healthcare workers, such as psychologists and mental health nurses. Each facilitator only carried out an interview in their own country. They were all known by their participants. There were 73 participants specifically chosen to take part. They all had experiences with different forms of treatment for a mental health problem. Some participants had paid for care, while others had received it for free, either from a charitable organization or as government- funded care. The length of their treatment had varied from six months to five years. One interview was carried out in each country. Each interview involved between 6 and 12 participants and was carried out in the native language of the country. Every effort was made to create a safe and friendly environment for the interview. The participants were informed about the aims of the study. They all gave permission for the interview to be audio-recorded and signed a consent form. The participants provided information about their age, gender and ethnicity. They also gave details about their mental health condition and the treatment they had received. The researchers wrote an interview guide in English. This was translated into the languages of the non-English speaking countries. The interviews began with general questions about the participants’ experiences. Once everyone felt comfortable sharing, the questions began to focus on the participants’ personal experiences of access to mental healthcare. They were also asked to share their views on the effectiveness and quality of their treatment. Each interview facilitator transcribed their audio-recorded interview and carried out an initial analysis of the transcript. They identified each participant with a unique code. The transcripts and initial analyses were then translated into English and sent to the researchers, who carried out further inductive content analysis. Several themes were identified by the researchers. These included “not knowing where to get help from” and “the importance of receiving help quickly.”
– 3 – 2225 – 5803 Disclaimer: Content used in IB assessments is taken from authentic, third-party sources. The views expressed within them belong to their individual authors and/or publishers and do not necessarily reflect the views of the IB. References: Axelsson, M., Schønning, V., Bockting, C. et al. Lived experiences: a focus group pilot study within the MentALLY project of mental healthcare among European users. BMC Health Serv Res 20, 605 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-020-05454-5. Source adapted. Licenced under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license: http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/deed.en.
Suggest one alternative or one additional research method that could be used to investigate the aim of the original study, giving one reason for your choice.
Marking guidance:
Award [1] for naming an alternative or additional research method and up to [2] for reason with rationale.
The candidate may choose to write about an alternative or an additional method. Either approach to answering the question is acceptable. The rationale may differ depending on which is chosen.
If more than one method is suggested, only the first method can be considered for credit.
Suitable alternative or additional research methods and reasons (with rationale) could be, but are not limited to:
Semi-structured interviews
- The aim of this research was to understand the participants experiences of mental healthcare. To get valid information, participants need to be allowed enough freedom to share their subjective experience.
- Although a semi-structured interview is based on an interview guide, it is flexible, and the interviewer can ask participants to elaborate on their answers in follow up questions which could potentially lead to a better understanding of each individual participant's subjective understanding of this topic.
- The semi-structured interview as an additional research method would allow triangulation and could compensate for the limitations of the focus group - such as issues around group dynamics.
Unstructured interviews
- Unstructured interviews do not have a set pattern and questions are not planned in advance. Instead, the questions are based on the participant's previous answers. This allows them to be very informal and flexible.
- Similar to the focus group, an unstructured interview is much like an everyday conversation, creating a relaxed environment where new topics and ideas can flow. It would therefore act as a suitable alternative.
- Unlike the focus group, an unstructured interview is carried out one to one which may avoid issues around group dynamics, for example quieter participants not being given a chance to share.
Surveys
- A survey with closed questions could collect quantitative data on participants' experiences of mental healthcare. This could function as an additional method and provide method triangulation.
- Data from a large-scale survey could add data to the investigation. This would allow for statistical comparisons (between countries or across time).
- Surveys generally allow researchers to collect a large amount of data in a relatively short period and they are less expensive than qualitative methods.
- With a survey it is easy to analyse the data statistically. If the sample is randomized, then the findings can be generalized to a target population.
All question bank results loaded